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id="toc-What_adaptation_is_not-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptedness_and_fitness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptedness_and_fitness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Adaptedness and fitness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptedness_and_fitness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Changes_in_habitat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_in_habitat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Changes in habitat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_in_habitat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Genetic change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Co-adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Co-adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Co-adaptation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Co-adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mimicry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mimicry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Mimicry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mimicry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade-offs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade-offs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Trade-offs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-offs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shifts_in_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shifts_in_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Shifts in function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Shifts_in_function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Shifts in function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Shifts_in_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Pre-adaptation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Co-option_of_existing_traits:_exaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Co-option_of_existing_traits:_exaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Co-option of existing traits: exaptation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Co-option_of_existing_traits:_exaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Niche_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niche_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Niche construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niche_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-adaptive_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-adaptive_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Non-adaptive traits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-adaptive_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinction_and_coextinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinction_and_coextinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Extinction and coextinction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinction_and_coextinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_adaptive_capacities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_adaptive_capacities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Origin of adaptive capacities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_adaptive_capacities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Philosophical issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Adaptation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiese_aanpassing" title="Biologiese aanpassing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Biologiese aanpassing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%81" title="تكيف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تكيف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adautaci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Adautación biolóxica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Adautación biolóxica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptasiya_(biologiya)" title="Adaptasiya (biologiya) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Adaptasiya (biologiya)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8" title="অভিযোজন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অভিযোজন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sek-%C3%A8ng" title="Sek-èng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sek-èng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Адаптацыя (біялогія) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Адаптацыя (біялогія)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Адаптация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Адаптация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%9F%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%82%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8D" title="བསྟུན་འགྱུར། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="བསྟུན་འགྱུར།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptacija" title="Adaptacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Adaptacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptaci%C3%B3" title="Adaptació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Adaptació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptace" title="Adaptace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Adaptace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Adaptation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%C3%A4re_Anpassung" title="Evolutionäre Anpassung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Evolutionäre Anpassung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohastumus" title="Kohastumus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kohastumus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AE" title="Προσαρμογή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Προσαρμογή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptaci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3gica" title="Adaptación biológica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Adaptación biológica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptado" title="Adaptado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Adaptado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldaera" title="Moldaera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Moldaera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_(%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="سازگاری (زیست‌شناسی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سازگاری (زیست‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_(biologie)" title="Adaptation (biologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Adaptation (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oiri%C3%BAn%C3%BA_(bitheola%C3%ADocht)" title="Oiriúnú (bitheolaíocht) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Oiriúnú (bitheolaíocht)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptaci%C3%B3n_biol%C3%B3xica" title="Adaptación biolóxica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Adaptación biolóxica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%A8" title="અનુકૂલન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અનુકૂલન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%81%EC%9D%91" title="적응 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="적응" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BE%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հարմարվողականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հարմարվողականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="अनुकूलन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अनुकूलन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prilagodba" title="Prilagodba – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prilagodba" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptasi" title="Adaptasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Adaptasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adattamento" title="Adattamento – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Adattamento" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%AA%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הסתגלות אבולוציונית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הסתגלות אבולוציונית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhaptasi" title="Adhaptasi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Adhaptasi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ადაპტაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ადაპტაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Адаптация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Адаптация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptasyon" title="Adaptasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Adaptasyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Адаптация (биология) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Адаптация (биология)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptatio" title="Adaptatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Adaptatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapt%C4%81cija" title="Adaptācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Adaptācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptacija" title="Adaptacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Adaptacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajusta_en_evolui" title="Ajusta en evolui – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ajusta en evolui" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapt%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Adaptáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Adaptáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Адаптација (биологија) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Адаптација (биологија)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="അനുകൂലനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അനുകൂലനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptasi" title="Adaptasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Adaptasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8)" title="Дасан зохицолт (биологи) – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дасан зохицолт (биологи)" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptatie_(biologie)" title="Adaptatie (biologie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Adaptatie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="अनुकूलन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अनुकूलन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%A9%E5%BF%9C_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6)" title="適応 (生物学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="適応 (生物学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilpasning_(biologi)" title="Tilpasning (biologi) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tilpasning (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilpassing" title="Tilpassing – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tilpassing" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptacion_(biologia)" title="Adaptacion (biologia) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Adaptacion (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moslashish_(biologiya)" title="Moslashish (biologiya) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Moslashish (biologiya)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%82" title="توافق – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="توافق" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adatament" title="Adatament – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Adatament" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptacja_(biologia)" title="Adaptacja (biologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Adaptacja (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_(biologia)" title="Adaptação (biologia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Adaptação (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptare_(biologie)" title="Adaptare (biologie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Adaptare (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Адаптація – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Адаптація" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Адаптация (биология) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Адаптация (биология)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABrshtatja" title="Përshtatja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Përshtatja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Adaptation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapt%C3%A1cia_(biol%C3%B3gia)" title="Adaptácia (biológia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Adaptácia (biológia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86" title="گونجاندن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گونجاندن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Адаптација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Адаптација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptacija" title="Adaptacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Adaptacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptasi" title="Adaptasi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Adaptasi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptaatio" title="Adaptaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Adaptaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anpassning_(biologi)" title="Anpassning (biologi) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Anpassning (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pag-aangkop" title="Pag-aangkop – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pag-aangkop" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இசைவாக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இசைவாக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assezgi" title="Assezgi – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Assezgi" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7_(%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2)" title="การปรับตัว (ชีววิทยา) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปรับตัว (ชีววิทยา)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Адаптатсия – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Адаптатсия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptasyon" title="Adaptasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Adaptasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Адаптація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Адаптація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adatamento" title="Adatamento – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Adatamento" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_nghi" title="Thích nghi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thích nghi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbagay" title="Pagbagay – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pagbagay" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%82%E5%BA%94" title="适应 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="适应" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%A9%E6%87%89" title="適應 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="適應" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptasyon" title="Adaptasyon – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Adaptasyon" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%A9%E6%87%89" title="適應 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="適應" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/270px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/360px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1319" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Gould" title="John Gould">John Gould</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of evolutionary biology">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Processes and outcomes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Contingency (evolutionary biology)">Contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History of evolutionary theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Overview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Before Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">Before synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evo-devo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_research_in_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current research in evolutionary biology">Current research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_speciation" title="History of speciation">History of speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields and applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applications_of_evolution" title="Applications of evolution">Applications of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">Evolutionary game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_evolution" title="Experimental evolution">Experimental evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_experiments_of_speciation" title="Laboratory experiments of speciation">Speciation experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">Island biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">Universal Darwinism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Social implications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" title="Evolution as fact and theory">Evolution as fact and theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effects of evolutionary theory">Social effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Creation–evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution" title="Level of support for evolution">Level of support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature-nurture controversy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/16px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/24px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex systems</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a><br /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Collective_behavior" title="Collective behavior">Collective behavior</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Social_dynamics" title="Social dynamics">Social dynamics</a><br /> <p><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">Collective action</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Self-organized_criticality" title="Self-organized criticality">Self-organized criticality</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Herd_mentality" title="Herd mentality">Herd mentality</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">Phase transition</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">Agent-based modelling</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Synchronization" title="Synchronization">Synchronization</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Ant_colony_optimization_algorithms" title="Ant colony optimization algorithms">Ant colony optimization</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm behaviour</a><br /> </p> <a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">Collective consciousness</a><br /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Network_science" title="Network science">Networks</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Scale-free_network" title="Scale-free network">Scale-free networks</a><br /> <p><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Social network analysis</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Small-world_network" title="Small-world network">Small-world networks</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Centrality" title="Centrality">Centrality</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Network_motif" title="Network motif">Motifs</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">Graph theory</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Scalability" title="Scalability">Scaling</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Robustness_(computer_science)" title="Robustness (computer science)">Robustness</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_network_analysis" title="Dynamic network analysis">Dynamic networks</a><br /> </p> <a href="/wiki/Complex_adaptive_system" title="Complex adaptive system">Adaptive networks</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">adaptation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Artificial neural network</a><br /> <p><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic algorithm">Genetic algorithms</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_programming" title="Genetic programming">Genetic programming</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Artificial_life" title="Artificial life">Artificial life</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_robotics" title="Evolutionary robotics">Evolutionary robotics</a><br /> </p> <a href="/wiki/Evolvability" title="Evolvability">Evolvability</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Pattern_formation" title="Pattern formation">Pattern formation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal">Fractals</a><br /> <p><a href="/wiki/Reaction%E2%80%93diffusion_system" title="Reaction–diffusion system">Reaction–diffusion systems</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">Partial differential equations</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Dissipative_system" title="Dissipative system">Dissipative structures</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Percolation" title="Percolation">Percolation</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Cellular_automaton" title="Cellular automaton">Cellular automata</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial ecology</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a><br /> </p> <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Autopoiesis" title="Autopoiesis">Autopoiesis</a><br /> <p><a href="/wiki/Conversation_theory" title="Conversation theory">Conversation theory</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">Feedback</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Goal_orientation" title="Goal orientation">Goal-oriented</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalization</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Second-order_cybernetics" title="Second-order cybernetics">Second-order cybernetics</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Self-reference" title="Self-reference">Self-reference</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">System dynamics</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Sensemaking" title="Sensemaking">Sensemaking</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Variety_(cybernetics)" title="Variety (cybernetics)">Variety</a><br /> </p> <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a><br /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_system" title="Nonlinear system">Nonlinear dynamics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time series analysis</a><br /> <p><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation" title="Ordinary differential equation">Ordinary differential equations</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Phase_space" title="Phase space">Phase space</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Attractor" title="Attractor">Attractors</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Multistability" title="Multistability">Multistability</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Bifurcation_theory" title="Bifurcation theory">Bifurcation</a><br /> </p> <a href="/wiki/Coupled_map_lattice" title="Coupled map lattice">Coupled map lattices</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">Prisoner's dilemma</a><br /> <p><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Bounded_rationality" title="Bounded rationality">Bounded rationality</a><br /> </p> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">Evolutionary game theory</a><br /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Complex_systems" title="Template:Complex systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Complex_systems" title="Template talk:Complex systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Complex_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Complex systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <b>adaptation</b> has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> process of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> that fits <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> to their environment, enhancing their <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">evolutionary fitness</a>. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">phenotypic trait</a> or <b>adaptive trait</b>, with a functional role in each individual <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a>, that is maintained and has evolved through natural selection. </p><p>Historically, adaptation has been described from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. In 18th and 19th century <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>, adaptation was taken as evidence for the existence of a deity. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> proposed instead that it was explained by natural selection. </p><p>Adaptation is related to <a href="/wiki/Biological_fitness" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological fitness">biological fitness</a>, which governs the rate of evolution as measured by change in <a href="/wiki/Allele_frequencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Allele frequencies">allele frequencies</a>. Often, two or more species co-adapt and <a href="/wiki/Co-evolve" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-evolve">co-evolve</a> as they develop adaptations that interlock with those of the other species, such as with <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollinating_insect" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollinating insect">pollinating insects</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicry</a>, species evolve to resemble other species; in <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry" title="Müllerian mimicry">mimicry</a> this is a mutually beneficial co-evolution as each of a group of strongly defended species (such as wasps able to sting) come to advertise their defenses in the same way. Features evolved for one purpose may be <a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">co-opted</a> for a different one, as when the insulating <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a> of dinosaurs were co-opted for <a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">bird flight</a>. </p><p>Adaptation is a major topic in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">philosophy of biology</a>, as it concerns function and purpose (<a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">teleology</a>). Some biologists try to avoid terms which imply purpose in adaptation, not least because it suggests a deity's intentions, but others note that adaptation is necessarily purposeful. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></div> <p>Adaptation is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, but their explanations differed. <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> did not believe that adaptation required a <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final cause">final cause</a> (a purpose), but thought that it "came about naturally, since such things survived." <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> did believe in final causes, but assumed that <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology#Scale_of_being" title="Aristotle's biology">species were fixed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg/370px-Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg/555px-Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg/740px-Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>The second of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>'s two factors (the first being a complexifying force) was an adaptive force that causes animals with a given <a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plan</a> to adapt to circumstances by <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of acquired characteristics">inheritance of acquired characteristics</a>, creating a diversity of <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>, adaptation was interpreted as the work of a deity and as evidence for the existence of God.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a> believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, who had argued that God had brought about "<a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">the best of all possible worlds</a>." <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>'s satire <a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Dr. Pangloss</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a parody of this optimistic idea, and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> also argued against design.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worlds.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> proposed a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving up a ladder of progress, plus "the influence of circumstances", usually expressed as <i>use and disuse</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This second, subsidiary element of his theory is what is now called <a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>, a proto-evolutionary hypothesis of the <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of acquired characteristics">inheritance of acquired characteristics</a>, intended to explain adaptations by natural means.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other natural historians, such as <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Buffon</a>, accepted adaptation, and some also accepted evolution, without voicing their opinions as to the mechanism. This illustrates the real merit of Darwin and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>, and secondary figures such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a>, for putting forward a mechanism whose significance had only been glimpsed previously. A century later, experimental field studies and breeding experiments by people such as <a href="/wiki/E._B._Ford" title="E. B. Ford">E. B. Ford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a> produced <a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">evidence that natural selection</a> was not only the 'engine' behind adaptation, but was a much stronger force than had previously been thought.<sup id="cite_ref-Provine_1986_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Provine_1986-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Orr_2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orr_2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_principles">General principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: General principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>The significance of an adaptation can only be understood in relation to the total biology of the species.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Evolution:_The_Modern_Synthesis" title="Evolution: The Modern Synthesis">Evolution: The Modern Synthesis</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="What_adaptation_is">What adaptation is</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: What adaptation is"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adaptation is primarily a process rather than a physical form or part of a body.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An internal <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a> (such as a <a href="/wiki/Liver_fluke" title="Liver fluke">liver fluke</a>) can illustrate the distinction: such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a>, which is often quite complex.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as a practical term, "adaptation" often refers to a <i>product</i>: those features of a <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function remains in doubt. By using the term <i>adaptation</i> for the evolutionary <i>process</i>, and <i>adaptive trait</i> for the bodily part or function (the product), one may distinguish the two different senses of the word.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the observed diversity of species, such as the different species of <a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a>. The other process is <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>, in which new species arise, typically through <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive isolation">reproductive isolation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example widely used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Cichlid" title="Cichlid">cichlid</a> fish in African lakes, where the question of reproductive isolation is complex.<sup id="cite_ref-Salzburger_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salzburger-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kornfield_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kornfield-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for a given environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places <i>constraints</i> on the evolution of development, behaviour, and structure of organisms. The main constraint, over which there has been much debate, is the requirement that each <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. However, it is not clear what "relatively small" should mean, for example <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploidy</a> in plants is a reasonably common large genetic change.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The origin of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiosis">endosymbiosis</a> is a more dramatic example.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All adaptations help organisms survive in their <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niches</a>. The adaptive traits may be structural, behavioural or <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiological</a>. Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism, such as shape, body covering, armament, and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">internal organization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Behavioural</a> adaptations are inherited systems of behaviour, whether inherited in detail as <a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">instincts</a>, or as a <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychological</a> capacity for <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">searching for food</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">mating</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">vocalizations</a>. Physiological adaptations permit the organism to perform special functions such as making <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a>, secreting <a href="/wiki/Snail_slime" title="Snail slime">slime</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phototropism" title="Phototropism">phototropism</a>, but also involve more general functions such as <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">growth and development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">temperature regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ionic</a> balance and other aspects of <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>. Adaptation affects all aspects of the life of an organism.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following definitions are given by the evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a>: </p> <dl><dd>1. <i>Adaptation</i> is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> or habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobzhansky_T_1968_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobzhansky_T_1968-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>2. <i>Adaptedness</i> is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>3. An <i>adaptive trait</i> is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="What_adaptation_is_not">What adaptation is not</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: What adaptation is not"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Falke_vor_LKW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Falke_vor_LKW.jpg/220px-Falke_vor_LKW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Falke_vor_LKW.jpg/330px-Falke_vor_LKW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Falke_vor_LKW.jpg/440px-Falke_vor_LKW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6932" data-file-height="4621" /></a><figcaption>The common kestrel has adapted successfully to urban areas</figcaption></figure> <p>Adaptation differs from flexibility, <a href="/wiki/Acclimatization" title="Acclimatization">acclimatization</a>, and learning, all of which are changes during life which are not inherited. Flexibility deals with the relative capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitats: its degree of <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">specialization</a>. Acclimatization describes automatic physiological adjustments during life;<sup id="cite_ref-Rymer2013_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rymer2013-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> learning means alteration in behavioural performance during life.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flexibility stems from <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">phenotypic plasticity</a>, the ability of an organism with a given <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a> (genetic type) to change its <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> (observable characteristics) in response to changes in its <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a>, or to move to a different habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined habitat, eats a specific type of food, and cannot survive if its needs are not met. Many <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> are like this; extreme examples are <a href="/wiki/Koala" title="Koala">koalas</a> which depend on <i><a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus" title="Eucalyptus">Eucalyptus</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Giant_panda" title="Giant panda">giant pandas</a> which require <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a>. A generalist, on the other hand, eats a range of food, and can survive in many different conditions. Examples are humans, rats, crabs and many carnivores. The <i>tendency</i> to behave in a specialized or exploratory manner is inherited—it is an adaptation. Rather different is developmental flexibility: "An animal or plant is developmentally flexible if when it is raised in or transferred to new conditions, it changes in structure so that it is better fitted to survive in the new environment," writes the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biologist</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If humans move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion become a problem, but after spending time in high altitude conditions they acclimatize to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen, such as by producing more <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a>. The ability to acclimatize is an adaptation, but the acclimatization itself is not. The reproductive rate declines, but deaths from some tropical diseases also go down. Over a longer period of time, some people are better able to reproduce at high altitudes than others. They contribute more heavily to later generations, and gradually by natural selection the whole population becomes adapted to the new conditions. This has demonstrably occurred, as the observed performance of long-term communities at higher altitude is significantly better than the performance of new arrivals, even when the new arrivals have had time to acclimatize.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptedness_and_fitness">Adaptedness and fitness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Adaptedness and fitness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness (biology)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fitness_landscape" title="Fitness landscape">Fitness landscape</a></div> <p>There is a relationship between adaptedness and the concept of fitness used in <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>. Differences in fitness between genotypes predict the rate of evolution by natural selection. Natural selection changes the relative frequencies of alternative phenotypes, insofar as they are <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Endler_33_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Endler_33-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a phenotype with high adaptedness may not have high fitness. Dobzhansky mentioned the example of the <a href="/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens" title="Sequoia sempervirens">Californian redwood</a>, which is highly adapted, but a <a href="/wiki/Relict_(biology)" title="Relict (biology)">relict</a> species in danger of <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobzhansky_T_1968_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobzhansky_T_1968-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Sober" title="Elliott Sober">Elliott Sober</a> commented that adaptation was a retrospective concept since it implied something about the history of a trait, whereas fitness predicts a trait's future.<sup id="cite_ref-Sober2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sober2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>1. Relative fitness. The average contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes, relative to the contributions of other genotypes in the population.<sup id="cite_ref-Futuyma_Evolution_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Futuyma_Evolution-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is also known as <i>Darwinian fitness</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Selection_coefficient" title="Selection coefficient">selection coefficient</a></i>, and other terms.</dd> <dd>2. Absolute fitness. The absolute contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes. Also known as the <a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian parameter</a> when applied to the population as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-Endler_33_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Endler_33-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>3. Adaptedness. The extent to which a phenotype fits its local ecological niche. Researchers can sometimes test this through a <a href="/wiki/Transplant_experiment" title="Transplant experiment">reciprocal transplant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png/220px-Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png/330px-Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png/440px-Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="238" /></a><figcaption>In this sketch of a <a href="/wiki/Fitness_landscape" title="Fitness landscape">fitness landscape</a>, a population can evolve by following the arrows to the adaptive peak at point B, and the points A and C are local optima where a population could become trapped.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a> proposed that populations occupy <i>adaptive peaks</i> on a fitness landscape. To evolve to another, higher peak, a population would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages, and might be "trapped" on a peak that is not optimally adapted.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Adaptation is the heart and soul of evolution.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Niles_Eldredge" title="Niles Eldredge">Niles Eldredge</a>, <i>Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory</i><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_in_habitat">Changes in habitat</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Changes in habitat"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before Darwin, adaptation was seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. It was not appreciated that as the <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> changed, so did the habitat; and as the habitat changed, so did the <a href="/wiki/Biota_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biota (ecology)">biota</a>. Also, habitats are subject to changes in their biota: for example, <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasions</a> of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species in a given habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on the speed and degree of the change. When the habitat changes, three main things may happen to a resident population: habitat tracking, genetic change or extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects only genetic change brings about adaptation. When a habitat changes, the resident population typically moves to more suitable places; this is the typical response of flying insects or oceanic organisms, which have wide (though not unlimited) opportunity for movement.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This common response is called <i>habitat tracking</i>. It is one explanation put forward for the periods of apparent stasis in the <a href="/wiki/Fossil#Dating" title="Fossil">fossil record</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">punctuated equilibrium</a> theory).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_change">Genetic change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Genetic change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Without <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a>, the ultimate source of all <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a>, there would be no genetic changes and no subsequent adaptation through evolution by natural selection. Genetic change occurs in a population when mutation increases or decreases in its initial frequency followed by random genetic drift, migration, recombination or natural selection act on this genetic variation.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example is that the first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism at the very origin of life on Earth may have been co-opted components of the already-existing <a href="/wiki/Purine_metabolism" title="Purine metabolism">purine nucleotide metabolism</a>, a metabolic pathway that evolved in an ancient <a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a>. The co-option requires new mutations and through natural selection, the population then adapts genetically to its present circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Orr_2005_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orr_2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic changes may result in entirely new or gradual change to visible structures, or they may adjust physiological activity in a way that suits the habitat. The varying shapes of the beaks of Darwin's finches, for example, are driven by adaptive mutations in the ALX1 gene.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The coat color of different wild mouse species matches their environments, whether black lava or light sand, owing to adaptive mutations in the <a href="/wiki/Melanocortin_1_receptor" title="Melanocortin 1 receptor">melanocortin 1 receptor</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> pathway genes.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physiological resistance to the heart poisons (<a href="/wiki/Cardiac_glycoside" title="Cardiac glycoside">cardiac glycosides</a>) that <a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly" title="Monarch butterfly">monarch butterflies</a> store in their bodies to protect themselves from predators<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are driven by adaptive mutations in the target of the poison, the <a href="/wiki/Na%2B/K%2B-ATPase" class="mw-redirect" title="Na+/K+-ATPase">sodium pump</a>, resulting in target site insensitivity.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These same adaptive mutations and similar changes at the same amino acid sites were found to evolve in a parallel manner in distantly related insects that feed on the same plants, and even in a bird that feeds on monarchs through <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>, a hallmark of adaptation.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convergence at the gene-level across distantly related species can arise because of evolutionary constraint.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Habitats and biota do frequently change over time and space. Therefore, it follows that the process of adaptation is never fully complete.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, it may happen that the environment changes little, and the species comes to fit its surroundings better and better, resulting in stabilizing selection. On the other hand, it may happen that changes in the environment occur suddenly, and then the species becomes less and less well adapted. The only way for it to climb back up that fitness peak is via the introduction of new genetic variation for natural selection to act upon. Seen like this, adaptation is a genetic <i>tracking process</i>, which goes on all the time to some extent, but especially when the population cannot or does not move to another, less hostile area. Given enough genetic change, as well as specific demographic conditions, an adaptation may be enough to bring a population back from the brink of extinction in a process called <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_rescue" title="Evolutionary rescue">evolutionary rescue</a>. Adaptation does affect, to some extent, every species in a particular <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Van_Valen" title="Leigh Van Valen">Leigh Van Valen</a> thought that even in a stable environment, because of antagonistic species interactions and limited resources, a species must constantly had to adapt to maintain its relative standing. This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Queen_hypothesis" title="Red Queen hypothesis">Red Queen hypothesis</a>, as seen in host-<a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a> interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Existing genetic variation and mutation were the traditional sources of material on which natural selection could act. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a> is possible between organisms in different species, using mechanisms as varied as <a href="/wiki/Gene_cassette" title="Gene cassette">gene cassettes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transposon" class="mw-redirect" title="Transposon">transposons</a> and viruses such as <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Co-adaptation">Co-adaptation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Co-adaptation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Co-adaptation" title="Co-adaptation">Co-adaptation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plumpollen0060.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Plumpollen0060.jpg/220px-Plumpollen0060.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Plumpollen0060.jpg/330px-Plumpollen0060.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Plumpollen0060.jpg/440px-Plumpollen0060.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption>Pollinating insects are <a href="/wiki/Co-adaptation" title="Co-adaptation">co-adapted</a> with flowering plants.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a>, where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of another species, new or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of corresponding features in the other species. In other words, each species triggers reciprocal natural selection in the other. These <a href="/wiki/Co-adaptation" title="Co-adaptation">co-adaptational</a> relationships are intrinsically dynamic, and may continue on a trajectory for millions of years, as has occurred in the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollinating</a> insects.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mimicry">Mimicry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mimicry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wasp_mimicry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Wasp_mimicry.jpg/220px-Wasp_mimicry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Wasp_mimicry.jpg/330px-Wasp_mimicry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Wasp_mimicry.jpg/440px-Wasp_mimicry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2162" data-file-height="2886" /></a><figcaption>Images A and B show real <a href="/wiki/Wasps" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasps">wasps</a>; the others show <a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimicry" title="Batesian mimicry">Batesian mimics</a>: three <a href="/wiki/Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">hoverflies</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetle</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Bates' work on Amazonian <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a> led him to develop the first scientific account of <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicry</a>, especially the kind of mimicry which bears his name: <a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimicry" title="Batesian mimicry">Batesian mimicry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the mimicry by a palatable species of an unpalatable or noxious species (the model), gaining a selective advantage as <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a> avoid the model and therefore also the mimic. Mimicry is thus an <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">anti-predator adaptation</a>. A common example seen in temperate gardens is the <a href="/wiki/Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">hoverfly</a> (Syrphidae), many of which—though bearing no sting—mimic the <a href="/wiki/Warning_coloration" class="mw-redirect" title="Warning coloration">warning coloration</a> of aculeate <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">wasps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>). Such mimicry does not need to be perfect to improve the survival of the palatable species.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bates, Wallace and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_M%C3%BCller" title="Fritz Müller">Fritz Müller</a> believed that Batesian and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry" title="Müllerian mimicry">Müllerian mimicry</a> provided <a href="/wiki/Coloration_evidence_for_natural_selection" title="Coloration evidence for natural selection">evidence for the action of natural selection</a>, a view which is now standard amongst biologists.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade-offs">Trade-offs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Trade-offs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they cannot scratch their backs; <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>' hair helps temperature, but offers a niche for <a href="/wiki/Parasitism#Types" title="Parasitism">ectoparasites</a>; the only flying penguins do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructive. Compromise and makeshift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolution... is a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a>, <i>The Future of Man</i><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Since the phenotype as a whole is the target of selection, it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of the phenotype to the same degree.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Growth_of_Biological_Thought" title="The Growth of Biological Thought">The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples">Examples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consider the antlers of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_elk" title="Irish elk">Irish elk</a>, (often supposed to be far too large; in <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a> antler size has an <a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">allometric</a> relationship to body size). Antlers serve positively for defence against <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a>, and to score victories in the annual <a href="/wiki/Rut_(mammalian_reproduction)" title="Rut (mammalian reproduction)">rut</a>. But they are costly in terms of resources. Their size during the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial period">last glacial period</a> presumably depended on the relative gain and loss of reproductive capacity in the population of elks during that time.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As another example, <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a> to avoid detection is destroyed when vivid <a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">coloration</a> is displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the necessity for reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcia2013_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcia2013-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stream-dwelling salamanders, such as <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_salamander" title="Caucasian salamander">Caucasian salamander</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gold-striped_salamander" title="Gold-striped salamander">Gold-striped salamander</a> have very slender, long bodies, perfectly adapted to life at the banks of fast small rivers and mountain <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">brooks</a>. Elongated body protects their <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a> from being washed out by current. However, elongated body increases risk of desiccation and decreases dispersal ability of the salamanders; it also negatively affects their <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a>. As a result, <a href="/wiki/Fire_salamander" title="Fire salamander">fire salamander</a>, less perfectly adapted to the mountain brook habitats, is in general more successful, have a higher fecundity and broader geographic range.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pfau_imponierend.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pfau_imponierend.jpg/220px-Pfau_imponierend.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pfau_imponierend.jpg/330px-Pfau_imponierend.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pfau_imponierend.jpg/440px-Pfau_imponierend.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Indian_peafowl" title="Indian peafowl">Indian peacock</a>'s train<br />in full display</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Peafowl" title="Peafowl">peacock</a>'s ornamental train (grown anew in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptation. It must reduce his maneuverability and flight, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resources. Darwin's explanation of its advantage was in terms of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>: "This depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction."<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kind of sexual selection represented by the peacock is called '<a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">mate choice</a>,' with an implication that the process selects the more fit over the less fit, and so has survival value.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recognition of sexual selection was for a long time in abeyance, but has been rehabilitated.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conflict between the size of the human <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">foetal</a> brain at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400 cm<sup>3</sup>, else it will not get through the mother's <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a>) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400 cm<sup>3</sup>), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright <a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">bipedal</a> stance, without which our pelvis could be shaped more suitably for birth. <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> had a similar problem.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As another example, the long neck of a giraffe brings benefits but at a cost. The neck of a giraffe can be up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in length.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The benefits are that it can be used for inter-species competition or for foraging on tall trees where shorter herbivores cannot reach. The cost is that a long neck is heavy and adds to the animal's body mass, requiring additional energy to build the neck and to carry its weight around.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shifts_in_function">Shifts in function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Shifts in function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Adaptation and function are two aspects of one problem.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Julian Huxley, <i>Evolution: The Modern Synthesis</i><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-adaptation">Pre-adaptation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pre-adaptation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pre-adaptation occurs when a population has characteristics which by chance are suited for a set of conditions not previously experienced. For example, the polyploid <a href="/wiki/Spartina" title="Spartina">cordgrass</a> <i>Spartina townsendii</i> is better adapted than either of its parent species to their own habitat of saline marsh and mud-flats.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among domestic animals, the <a href="/wiki/Leghorn_chicken" title="Leghorn chicken">White Leghorn</a> chicken is markedly more resistant to <a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">vitamin B<sub>1</sub></a> deficiency than other breeds; on a plentiful diet this makes no difference, but on a restricted diet this preadaptation could be decisive.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pre-adaptation may arise because a natural population carries a huge quantity of genetic variability.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobzhansky_T_1981_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobzhansky_T_1981-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#Diploid" title="Ploidy">diploid</a> eukaryotes, this is a consequence of the system of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, where mutant alleles get partially shielded, for example, by <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">genetic dominance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a>, with their huge populations, also carry a great deal of genetic variability. The first experimental evidence of the pre-adaptive nature of genetic variants in microorganisms was provided by <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> who developed the <a href="/wiki/Luria%E2%80%93Delbr%C3%BCck_experiment" title="Luria–Delbrück experiment">Fluctuation Test</a>, a method to show the random fluctuation of pre-existing genetic changes that conferred resistance to bacteriophages in <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Luria_1943_491–511_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luria_1943_491–511-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word is controversial because it is <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> and the entire concept of natural selection depends on the presence of genetic variation, regardless of the population size of a species in question. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Co-option_of_existing_traits:_exaptation">Co-option of existing traits: exaptation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Co-option of existing traits: exaptation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg/260px-Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg/390px-Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg/520px-Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption>The feathers of <i><a href="/wiki/Sinosauropteryx" title="Sinosauropteryx">Sinosauropteryx</a></i>, a dinosaur with feathers, were used for insulation or display, making them an <a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">exaptation</a> for flight.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></div> <p>Features that now appear as adaptations sometimes arose by co-option of existing traits, evolved for some other purpose. The classic example is the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">ear ossicles of mammals</a>, which we know from <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryological</a> evidence originated in the upper and lower <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaws</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hyoid_bone" title="Hyoid bone">hyoid bone</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsid</a> ancestors, and further back still were part of the <a href="/wiki/Branchial_arch" title="Branchial arch">gill arches</a> of early fish.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>exaptation</i> was coined to cover these common evolutionary shifts in function.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flight <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a> of birds evolved from the much earlier <a href="/wiki/Feathered_dinosaur#Non-avian_dinosaur_species_preserved_with_evidence_of_feathers" title="Feathered dinosaur">feathers of dinosaurs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ornithoscelida_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ornithoscelida-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which might have been used for insulation or for display.<sup id="cite_ref-Dimond_et_al_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dimond_et_al-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Niche_construction">Niche construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Niche construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animals including <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">beavers</a> and humans use some of their adaptations to modify their surroundings, so as to maximize their chances of surviving and reproducing. Beavers create dams and lodges, changing the ecosystems of the valleys around them. Earthworms, as Darwin noted, improve the topsoil in which they live by incorporating organic matter. Humans have constructed extensive civilizations with cities in environments as varied as the Arctic and hot deserts. In all three cases, the construction and maintenance of ecological niches helps drive the continued selection of the genes of these animals, in an environment that the animals have modified.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-adaptive_traits">Non-adaptive traits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Non-adaptive traits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel (biology)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vestigiality" title="Vestigiality">Vestigiality</a></div> <p>Some traits do not appear to be adaptive as they have a neutral or deleterious effect on fitness in the current environment. Because genes often have <a href="/wiki/Pleiotropy" title="Pleiotropy">pleiotropic</a> effects, not all traits may be functional: they may be what <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a> called <a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">spandrels</a>, features brought about by neighbouring adaptations, on the analogy with the often highly decorated triangular areas between pairs of arches in architecture, which began as functionless features.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner2014_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner2014-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another possibility is that a trait may have been adaptive at some point in an organism's evolutionary history, but a change in habitats caused what used to be an adaptation to become unnecessary or even <a href="/wiki/Maladaptation" title="Maladaptation">maladapted</a>. Such adaptations are termed <a href="/wiki/Vestigiality" title="Vestigiality">vestigial</a>. Many organisms have vestigial organs, which are the remnants of fully functional structures in their ancestors. As a result of changes in lifestyle the organs became redundant, and are either not functional or reduced in functionality. Since any structure represents some kind of cost to the general economy of the body, an advantage may accrue from their elimination once they are not functional. Examples: <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_tooth" title="Wisdom tooth">wisdom teeth</a> in humans; the loss of pigment and functional eyes in cave fauna; the loss of structure in <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal parasite">endoparasites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extinction_and_coextinction">Extinction and coextinction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Extinction and coextinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></div> <p>If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just as there is co-adaptation, there is also coextinction, the loss of a species due to the extinction of another with which it is coadapted, as with the extinction of a <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitic</a> insect following the loss of its host, or when a flowering plant loses its pollinator, or when a <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> is disrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-Koh_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koh-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_adaptive_capacities">Origin of adaptive capacities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Origin of adaptive capacities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first stage in the evolution of life on earth is often hypothesized to be the <a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a> in which short self-replicating <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> molecules proliferated before the evolution of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>. By this hypothesis, <a href="/wiki/Biogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogenesis">life started</a> when RNA chains began to self-replicate, initiating the three mechanisms of Darwinian selection: heritability, variation of type, and competition for resources. The fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely have been a function of its intrinsic adaptive capacities, determined by its <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_sequence" title="Nucleic acid sequence">nucleotide sequence</a>, and the availability of resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein1983_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein1983-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Michod1999_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michod1999-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three primary adaptive capacities may have been: (1) replication with moderate fidelity, giving rise to heritability while allowing variation of type, (2) resistance to decay, and (3) acquisition of resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein1983_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein1983-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Michod1999_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michod1999-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These adaptive capacities would have been determined by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators resulting from their nucleotide sequences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_issues">Philosophical issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Philosophical issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Springbok_pronk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/220px-Springbok_pronk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/330px-Springbok_pronk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>"Behaviour with a purpose": a young <a href="/wiki/Springbok" title="Springbok">springbok</a> <a href="/wiki/Stotting" title="Stotting">stotting</a>. A biologist might argue that this has the <a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">function</a> of <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signalling to predators</a>, helping the springbok to survive and allowing it to reproduce.<sup id="cite_ref-Caro_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caro-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></div> <p>Adaptation raises <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">philosophical issues</a> concerning how biologists speak of function and purpose, as this carries implications of evolutionary history – that a feature evolved by natural selection for a specific reason – and potentially of supernatural intervention – that features and organisms exist because of a deity's conscious intentions.<sup id="cite_ref-Sober1_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sober1-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">In his biology, Aristotle</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a> to describe the adaptedness of organisms, but without accepting the supernatural intention built into <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s thinking, which Aristotle rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern biologists continue to face the same difficulty.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the one hand, adaptation is purposeful: natural selection chooses what works and eliminates what does not. On the other hand, biologists by and large reject conscious purpose in evolution. The dilemma gave rise to a famous joke by the evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane" title="J. B. S. Haldane">Haldane</a>: "Teleology is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he's unwilling to be seen with her in public.'" <a href="/wiki/David_Hull_(philosopher)" title="David Hull (philosopher)">David Hull</a> commented that Haldane's mistress "has become a lawfully wedded wife. Biologists no longer feel obligated to apologize for their use of teleological language; they flaunt it."<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> stated that "adaptedness... is an <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">a posteriori</a> result rather than an a priori goal-seeking", meaning that the question of whether something is an adaptation can only be determined after the event.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_evolution_in_the_human_genome" title="Adaptive evolution in the human genome">Adaptive evolution in the human genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_memory" title="Adaptive memory">Adaptive memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_mutation" title="Adaptive mutation">Adaptive mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_system" title="Adaptive system">Adaptive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_reactivity" title="Body reactivity">Body reactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolvability" title="Evolvability">Evolvability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intragenomic_conflict" title="Intragenomic conflict">Intragenomic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution">Neutral theory of molecular evolution</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLeroi2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi" title="Armand Marie Leroi">Leroi, Armand Marie</a> (2015). <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_Lagoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's Lagoon"><i>The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science</i></a>. Bloomsbury. pp. 91–92, 273, 288. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4"><bdi>978-1-4088-3622-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lagoon%3A+How+Aristotle+Invented+Science&rft.pages=91-92%2C+273%2C+288&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4&rft.aulast=Leroi&rft.aufirst=Armand+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmond1989">Desmond 1989</a>, pp. 31–32, fn 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1759" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire (1759). <i>Candide</i>. Cramer et al.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Candide&rft.pub=Cramer+et+al&rft.date=1759&rft.au=Voltaire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSober1993">Sober 1993</a>, chpt. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1872">Darwin 1872</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=425&itemID=F391&viewtype=side">397: "Rudimentary, Atrophied, and Aborted Organs"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Bowler, Peter J.</a> (1989) [1983]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl/page/86"><i>Evolution: The History of an Idea</i></a> (Revised ed.). University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl/page/86">86</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06386-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06386-0"><bdi>978-0-520-06386-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+History+of+an+Idea&rft.pages=86&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06386-0&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionhistory0000bowl%2Fpage%2F86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, the discussion in <a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a>, pp. 86–95: "Whatever the true nature of Lamarck's theory, it was his mechanism of adaptation that caught the attention of later naturalists." (p. 90)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Provine_1986-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Provine_1986_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFProvine1986">Provine 1986</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFord1975">Ford 1975</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Orr_2005-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Orr_2005_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Orr_2005_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrr2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._Allen_Orr" title="H. Allen Orr">Orr, H. Allen</a> (February 2005). "The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history". <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Genetics" title="Nature Reviews Genetics">Nature Reviews Genetics</a></i>. <b>6</b> (2): 119–127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1523">10.1038/nrg1523</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15716908">15716908</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17772950">17772950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+genetic+theory+of+adaptation%3A+a+brief+history&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=119-127&rft.date=2005-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17772950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15716908&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg1523&rft.aulast=Orr&rft.aufirst=H.+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuxley1942">Huxley 1942</a>, p. 449</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayr1982">Mayr 1982</a>, p. 483: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past, and became instead a continuing dynamic process."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrice1980">Price 1980</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaintithMartin2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth A., eds. (2010) [First published 1984 as <i>Concise Science Dictionary</i>]. "adaptation". <i>A Dictionary of Science</i>. Oxford Paperback Reference (6th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956146-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956146-9"><bdi>978-0-19-956146-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2010287468">2010287468</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/444383696">444383696</a>. <q>Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=adaptation&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Science&rft.series=Oxford+Paperback+Reference&rft.pages=13&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F444383696&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010287468&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956146-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a>, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1999">Patterson 1999</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1966">Williams 1966</a>, p. 5: "Evolutionary adaptation is a phenomenon of pervasive importance in biology."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayr1963">Mayr 1963</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayr1982">Mayr 1982</a>, pp. 562–566</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salzburger-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Salzburger_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzburgerMackVerheyenMeyer2005" class="citation journal cs1">Salzburger, Walter; Mack, Tanja; Verheyen, Erik; <a href="/wiki/Axel_Meyer" title="Axel Meyer">Meyer, Axel</a> (21 February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC554777">"Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BMC_Evolutionary_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="BMC Evolutionary Biology">BMC Evolutionary Biology</a></i>. <b>5</b> (17): 17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2148-5-17">10.1186/1471-2148-5-17</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC554777">554777</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15723698">15723698</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.atitle=Out+of+Tanganyika%3A+Genesis%2C+explosive+speciation%2C+key-innovations+and+phylogeography+of+the+haplochromine+cichlid+fishes&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=17&rft.date=2005-02-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC554777%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15723698&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2148-5-17&rft.aulast=Salzburger&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft.au=Mack%2C+Tanja&rft.au=Verheyen%2C+Erik&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Axel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC554777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kornfield-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kornfield_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornfieldSmith2000" class="citation journal cs1">Kornfield, Irv; Smith, Peter F. (November 2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Ecology,_Evolution,_and_Systematics" title="Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics">Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics</a></i>. <b>31</b>: 163–196. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.31.1.163">10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Ecology+and+Systematics&rft.atitle=African+Cichlid+Fishes%3A+Model+Systems+for+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=163-196&rft.date=2000-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.31.1.163&rft.aulast=Kornfield&rft.aufirst=Irv&rft.au=Smith%2C+Peter+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStebbins1950">Stebbins 1950</a>, chs. 8 and 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMargulisFester1991">Margulis & Fester 1991</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHutchinson1965">Hutchinson 1965</a>. The niche is the central concept in evolutionary ecology; see especially part II: "The niche: an abstractly inhabited hypervolume." (pp. 26–78)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dobzhansky_T_1968-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dobzhansky_T_1968_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobzhansky_T_1968_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobzhansky1968">Dobzhansky 1968</a>, pp. 1–34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2014" class="citation book cs1">Wang, G (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DmDSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69">"Chapter 5.6—Zero Order Adaptivity"</a>. <i>Analysis of Complex Diseases: A Mathematical Perspective</i>. Taylor Francis. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-7223-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-7223-2"><bdi>978-1-4665-7223-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240630095058/https://books.google.com/books?id=DmDSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5.6%E2%80%94Zero+Order+Adaptivity&rft.btitle=Analysis+of+Complex+Diseases%3A+A+Mathematical+Perspective&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Taylor+Francis&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4665-7223-2&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDmDSBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSejianGaughanBaumgardPrasad2015" class="citation book cs1">Sejian, V.; Gaughan, J.; Baumgard, L.; Prasad, C., eds. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D-G9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA515"><i>Climate Change Impact on Livestock: Adaptation and Mitigation</i></a>. Springer. p. 515. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-322-2265-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-322-2265-1"><bdi>978-81-322-2265-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724234323/https://books.google.com/books?id=D-G9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA515">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+Impact+on+Livestock%3A+Adaptation+and+Mitigation&rft.pages=515&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-81-322-2265-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD-G9BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobzhansky1970">Dobzhansky 1970</a>, pp. 4–6, 79–82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobzhansky1956" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Dobzhansky, Theodosius</a> (March 1956). "Genetics of Natural Populations. XXV. Genetic Changes in Populations of <i>Drosophila pseudoobscura</i> and <i>Drosophila persimilis</i> in Some Localities in California". <i><a href="/wiki/Evolution_(journal)" title="Evolution (journal)">Evolution</a></i>. <b>10</b> (1): 82–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2406099">10.2307/2406099</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2406099">2406099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.atitle=Genetics+of+Natural+Populations.+XXV.+Genetic+Changes+in+Populations+of+Drosophila+pseudoobscura+and+Drosophila+persimilis+in+Some+Localities+in+California&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82-92&rft.date=1956-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2406099&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2406099%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rymer2013-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rymer2013_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRymerPillaySchradin2013" class="citation journal cs1">Rymer, Tasmin; Pillay, Neville; Schradin, Carsten (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu5010163">"Extinction or Survival? Behavioral Flexibility in Response to Environmental Change in the African Striped Mouse Rhabdomys"</a>. <i>Sustainability</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 163–186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu5010163">10.3390/su5010163</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sustainability&rft.atitle=Extinction+or+Survival%3F+Behavioral+Flexibility+in+Response+to+Environmental+Change+in+the+African+Striped+Mouse+Rhabdomys&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=163-186&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fsu5010163&rft.aulast=Rymer&rft.aufirst=Tasmin&rft.au=Pillay%2C+Neville&rft.au=Schradin%2C+Carsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fsu5010163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross2012" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Richard (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cle1Fcr_6_QC&pg=PT335"><i>Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour</i></a> (6th ed.). Hodder. p. 335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4441-6436-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4441-6436-7"><bdi>978-1-4441-6436-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240630095059/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cle1Fcr_6_QC&pg=PT335">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"The idea of teleology" <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>, 53, 117–135.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adaptation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllinHopson1992" class="citation book cs1">Allin, Edgar F.; <a href="/wiki/James_Hopson" title="James Hopson">Hopson, James A.</a> (1992). 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(eds.). <i>The Evolutionary Biology of Hearing</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer-Verlag</a>. pp. 587–614. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-2784-7_37">10.1007/978-1-4612-2784-7_37</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-97588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-97588-7"><bdi>978-0-387-97588-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/23582549">23582549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+Auditory+System+in+Synapsida+%28%22Mammal-Like+Reptiles%22+and+Primitive+Mammals%29+as+Seen+in+the+Fossil+Record&rft.btitle=The+Evolutionary+Biology+of+Hearing&rft.pages=587-614&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23582549&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-2784-7_37&rft.isbn=978-0-387-97588-7&rft.aulast=Allin&rft.aufirst=Edgar+F.&rft.au=Hopson%2C+James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span> "Based on a conference held at the <a href="/wiki/Mote_Marine_Laboratory" title="Mote Marine Laboratory">Mote Marine Laboratory</a> in Sarasota, Fla., May 20–24, 1990."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrettGautreyHerbertKohn1987" class="citation book cs1">Barrett, Paul H.; Gautrey, Peter J.; Herbert, Sandra; et al., eds. (1987). <i>Charles Darwin's Notebooks, 1836–1844: Geology, Transmutation of Species, Metaphysical Enquiries</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09975-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09975-2"><bdi>978-0-521-09975-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/16224403">16224403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin%27s+Notebooks%2C+1836%E2%80%931844%3A+Geology%2C+Transmutation+of+Species%2C+Metaphysical+Enquiries&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16224403&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09975-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Bowler, Peter J.</a> (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8"><i>Evolution: The History of an Idea</i></a></span> (3rd completely rev. and expanded ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6"><bdi>978-0-520-23693-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49824702">49824702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+History+of+an+Idea&rft.edition=3rd+completely+rev.+and+expanded&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49824702&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23693-6&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarpenterFord1933" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Douglas_Hale_Carpenter" title="Geoffrey Douglas Hale Carpenter">Carpenter, G.D. Hale</a>; <a href="/wiki/E._B._Ford" title="E. B. Ford">Ford, E. B.</a> (1933). <i>Mimicry. With a Section on Its Genetic Aspect by E. B. Ford</i>. Methuen's Monographs on Biological Subjects. <a href="/wiki/Methuen_Publishing" title="Methuen Publishing">Methuen</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/875481859">875481859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mimicry.+With+a+Section+on+Its+Genetic+Aspect+by+E.+B.+Ford&rft.series=Methuen%27s+Monographs+on+Biological+Subjects&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F875481859&rft.aulast=Carpenter&rft.aufirst=G.D.+Hale&rft.au=Ford%2C+E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronin1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helena_Cronin" title="Helena Cronin">Cronin, Helen</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/antpeacockaltrui00cron"><i>The Ant and the Peacock: Altruism and Sexual Selection from Darwin to Today</i></a>. Foreword by <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32937-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32937-8"><bdi>978-0-521-32937-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/23144516">23144516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ant+and+the+Peacock%3A+Altruism+and+Sexual+Selection+from+Darwin+to+Today&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23144516&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32937-8&rft.aulast=Cronin&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fantpeacockaltrui00cron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1871" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1871). <a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man,_and_Selection_in_Relation_to_Sex" title="The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex"><i>The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(publishing_house)" title="John Murray (publishing house)">John Murray</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/550912">550912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Descent+of+Man%2C+and+Selection+in+Relation+to+Sex&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1871&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F550912&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1872" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F391&viewtype=side"><i>The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</i></a> (6th ed.). John Murray. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1185571">1185571</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141018152414/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=side&pageseq=1">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection%2C+or+the+Preservation+of+Favoured+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1872&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1185571&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3Fpageseq%3D1%26itemID%3DF391%26viewtype%3Dside&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDesmond1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Desmond" title="Adrian Desmond">Desmond, Adrian</a> (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsofevolut00adri"><i>The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in Radical London</i></a></span>. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14346-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14346-0"><bdi>978-0-226-14346-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/709606191">709606191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Evolution%3A+Morphology%2C+Medicine%2C+and+Reform+in+Radical+London&rft.series=Science+and+its+Conceptual+Foundations&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F709606191&rft.isbn=978-0-226-14346-0&rft.aulast=Desmond&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticsofevolut00adri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobzhansky1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Dobzhansky, Theodosius</a> (1968). "On Some Fundamental Concepts of Darwinian Biology". In Dobzhansky, Theodosius; Hecht, Max K.; Steere, William C. (eds.). <i>Evolutionary Biology</i>. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Appleton-Century-Crofts" title="Appleton-Century-Crofts">Appleton-Century-Crofts</a>. pp. 1–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8094-8_1">10.1007/978-1-4684-8094-8_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4684-8096-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4684-8096-2"><bdi>978-1-4684-8096-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24875357">24875357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Some+Fundamental+Concepts+of+Darwinian+Biology&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Biology&rft.pages=1-34&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24875357&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8094-8_1&rft.isbn=978-1-4684-8096-2&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobzhansky1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Dobzhansky, Theodosius</a> (1970). <i>Genetics of the Evolutionary Process</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-02837-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-02837-0"><bdi>978-0-231-02837-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/97663">97663</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetics+of+the+Evolutionary+Process&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F97663&rft.isbn=978-0-231-02837-0&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobzhansky1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Dobzhansky, Theodosius</a> (1981). <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Lewontin, Richard C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Alexander_Moore" title="John Alexander Moore">Moore, John A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Will_Provine" class="mw-redirect" title="Will Provine">Provine, William B.</a>; et al. (eds.). <i>Dobzhansky's Genetics of Natural Populations I-XLIII</i>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-05132-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-05132-3"><bdi>978-0-231-05132-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7276406">7276406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dobzhansky%27s+Genetics+of+Natural+Populations+I-XLIII&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7276406&rft.isbn=978-0-231-05132-3&rft.aulast=Dobzhansky&rft.aufirst=Theodosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span> "Papers by Dobzhansky and his collaborators, originally published 1937-1975 in various journals."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldredge1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niles_Eldredge" title="Niles Eldredge">Eldredge, Niles</a> (1985). <i>Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria</i>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-49555-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-49555-8"><bdi>978-0-671-49555-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11443805">11443805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+Frames%3A+The+Rethinking+of+Darwinian+Evolution+and+the+Theory+of+Punctuated+Equilibria&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11443805&rft.isbn=978-0-671-49555-8&rft.aulast=Eldredge&rft.aufirst=Niles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldredge1995" class="citation book cs1">Eldredge, Niles (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reinventingdarwi00eldr"><i>Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-30301-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-30301-5"><bdi>978-0-471-30301-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30975979">30975979</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reinventing+Darwin%3A+The+Great+Debate+at+the+High+Table+of+Evolutionary+Theory&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30975979&rft.isbn=978-0-471-30301-5&rft.aulast=Eldredge&rft.aufirst=Niles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freinventingdarwi00eldr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEndler1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Endler" title="John Endler">Endler, John A.</a> (1986). "Fitness and Adaptation". <i>Natural Selection in the Wild</i>. Monographs in Population Biology. Vol. 21. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08387-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08387-2"><bdi>978-0-691-08387-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12262762">12262762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fitness+and+Adaptation&rft.btitle=Natural+Selection+in+the+Wild&rft.series=Monographs+in+Population+Biology&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12262762&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08387-2&rft.aulast=Endler&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1930" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Fisher, Ronald Aylmer</a> (1930). <a href="/wiki/The_Genetical_Theory_of_Natural_Selection" title="The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection"><i>The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press#Clarendon_Press" title="Oxford University Press">The Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/493745635">493745635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genetical+Theory+of+Natural+Selection&rft.pub=The+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F493745635&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Ronald+Aylmer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord1975" class="citation journal cs1">Ford, E. B. (1975). <a href="/wiki/Ecological_Genetics_(book)" title="Ecological Genetics (book)">"Ecological Genetics"</a>. <i>Advancement of Science</i>. <b>25</b> (124) (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Chapman_%26_Hall" title="Chapman & Hall">Chapman & Hall</a>; John Wiley & Sons: 227–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-26576-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-26576-5"><bdi>978-0-470-26576-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1890603">1890603</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5701915">5701915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advancement+of+Science&rft.atitle=Ecological+Genetics&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=124&rft.pages=227-35&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1890603&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5701915&rft.isbn=978-0-470-26576-5&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemanHerron2007" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Scott; Herron, Jon C. (2007). <i>Evolutionary Analysis</i> (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Pearson Prentice Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-227584-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-227584-2"><bdi>978-0-13-227584-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/73502978">73502978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Analysis&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F73502978&rft.isbn=978-0-13-227584-2&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft.au=Herron%2C+Jon+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFutuyma1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_J._Futuyma" title="Douglas J. Futuyma">Futuyma, Douglas J.</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionarybiol00futu"><i>Evolutionary Biology</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Sinauer_Associates" title="Sinauer Associates">Sinauer Associates</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-188-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-188-0"><bdi>978-0-87893-188-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13822044">13822044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Biology&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13822044&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-188-0&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionarybiol00futu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHull1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hull_(philosopher)" title="David Hull (philosopher)">Hull, David L.</a> (1982). "Philosophy and biology". In <a href="/wiki/Guttorm_Fl%C3%B8istad" title="Guttorm Fløistad">Fløistad, Guttorm</a> (ed.). <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. Contemporary Philosophy: A New Survey. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Nijhoff_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus Nijhoff Publishers">Martinus Nijhoff Publishers</a>; <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Netherlands</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-9940-0">10.1007/978-94-010-9940-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-2518-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-247-2518-2"><bdi>978-90-247-2518-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/502399533">502399533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+and+biology&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.series=Contemporary+Philosophy%3A+A+New+Survey&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers%3B+Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F502399533&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-010-9940-0&rft.isbn=978-90-247-2518-2&rft.aulast=Hull&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchinson1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson" title="G. Evelyn Hutchinson">Hutchinson, G. Evelyn</a> (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ecologicaltheate00hutc"><i>The Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/250039">250039</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecological+Theater+and+the+Evolutionary+Play&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F250039&rft.aulast=Hutchinson&rft.aufirst=G.+Evelyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fecologicaltheate00hutc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuxley1942" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Huxley, Julian</a> (1942). <a href="/wiki/Evolution:_The_Modern_Synthesis" title="Evolution: The Modern Synthesis"><i>Evolution: The Modern Synthesis</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin" title="Allen & Unwin">Allen & Unwin</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1399386">1399386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+Modern+Synthesis&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1399386&rft.aulast=Huxley&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargulisFester1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Margulis, Lynn</a>; Fester, René, eds. (1991). <i>Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis</i>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-13269-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-13269-5"><bdi>978-0-262-13269-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22597587">22597587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symbiosis+as+a+Source+of+Evolutionary+Innovation%3A+Speciation+and+Morphogenesis&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22597587&rft.isbn=978-0-262-13269-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span> "Based on a conference held in Bellagio, Italy, June 25–30, 1989"</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaynard_Smith1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">Maynard Smith, John</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryofevolutio00mayn"><i>The Theory of Evolution</i></a> (Canto ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45128-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45128-4"><bdi>978-0-521-45128-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27676642">27676642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Evolution&rft.edition=Canto&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27676642&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45128-4&rft.aulast=Maynard+Smith&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheoryofevolutio00mayn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1963). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/animalspeciesevo00mayr"><i>Animal Species and Evolution</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Belknap Press of Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03750-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03750-2"><bdi>978-0-674-03750-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/899044868">899044868</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+Species+and+Evolution&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F899044868&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03750-2&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanimalspeciesevo00mayr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/causeeffect00lern">"Cause and Effect in Biology"</a></span>. In Lerner, Daniel (ed.). <i>Cause and Effect</i>. The Hayden Colloquium on Scientific Method and Concept. <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/384895">384895</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cause+and+Effect+in+Biology&rft.btitle=Cause+and+Effect&rft.series=The+Hayden+Colloquium+on+Scientific+Method+and+Concept&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F384895&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcauseeffect00lern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1982" class="citation book cs1">Mayr, Ernst (1982). <a href="/wiki/The_Growth_of_Biological_Thought" title="The Growth of Biological Thought"><i>The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Belknap Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36445-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36445-5"><bdi>978-0-674-36445-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7875904">7875904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Biological+Thought%3A+Diversity%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Inheritance&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7875904&rft.isbn=978-0-674-36445-5&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1988). <a href="/wiki/Toward_a_New_Philosophy_of_Biology" title="Toward a New Philosophy of Biology"><i>Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist</i></a>. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-89665-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-89665-9"><bdi>978-0-674-89665-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17108004">17108004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+a+New+Philosophy+of+Biology%3A+Observations+of+an+Evolutionist&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17108004&rft.isbn=978-0-674-89665-9&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedawar1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Medawar, Peter</a> (1960). <i>The Future of Man</i>. The BBC <a href="/wiki/Reith_Lectures" title="Reith Lectures">Reith Lectures</a>, 1959. Methuen. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1374615">1374615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Man&rft.series=The+BBC+Reith+Lectures%2C+1959&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1374615&rft.aulast=Medawar&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Miller_(psychologist)" title="Geoffrey Miller (psychologist)">Miller, Geoffrey</a> (2007). "Brain Evolution". In Gangestad, Steven W.; Simpson, Jeffry A. (eds.). <i>The Evolution of Mind: Fundamental Questions and Controversies</i>. <a href="/wiki/Guilford_Press" title="Guilford Press">Guilford Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59385-408-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59385-408-9"><bdi>978-1-59385-408-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71005838">71005838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Brain+Evolution&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Mind%3A+Fundamental+Questions+and+Controversies&rft.pub=Guilford+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71005838&rft.isbn=978-1-59385-408-9&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonod1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Monod, Jacques</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chancenecessity00jacq"><i>Chance and Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology</i></a>. Translation of <i>Le hasard et la nécessité</i> by <a href="/wiki/Austryn_Wainhouse" title="Austryn Wainhouse">Austryn Wainhouse</a> (1st American ed.). <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Knopf</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-46615-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-46615-6"><bdi>978-0-394-46615-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/209901">209901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chance+and+Necessity%3A+An+Essay+on+the+Natural+Philosophy+of+Modern+Biology&rft.edition=1st+American&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F209901&rft.isbn=978-0-394-46615-6&rft.aulast=Monod&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchancenecessity00jacq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon1976" class="citation book cs1">Moon, Harold Philip (1976). <i>Henry Walter Bates FRS, 1825-1892: Explorer, Scientist, and Darwinian</i>. Leicestershire Museums, Art Galleries, and Records Service. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904671-19-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-904671-19-3"><bdi>978-0-904671-19-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3607387">3607387</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henry+Walter+Bates+FRS%2C+1825-1892%3A+Explorer%2C+Scientist%2C+and+Darwinian&rft.pub=Leicestershire+Museums%2C+Art+Galleries%2C+and+Records+Service&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3607387&rft.isbn=978-0-904671-19-3&rft.aulast=Moon&rft.aufirst=Harold+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanchen1992" class="citation book cs1">Panchen, Alec L. (1992). <i>Classification, Evolution and the Nature of Biology</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31578-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31578-4"><bdi>978-0-521-31578-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24247430">24247430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classification%2C+Evolution+and+the+Nature+of+Biology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24247430&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31578-4&rft.aulast=Panchen&rft.aufirst=Alec+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_Patterson_(biologist)" title="Colin Patterson (biologist)">Patterson, Colin</a> (1999). <i>Evolution</i>. Comstock Book Series (2nd illustrated, revised ed.). Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8594-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8594-7"><bdi>978-0-8014-8594-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39724234">39724234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.series=Comstock+Book+Series&rft.edition=2nd+illustrated%2C+revised&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39724234&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8594-7&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPittendrigh1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_Pittendrigh" title="Colin Pittendrigh">Pittendrigh, Colin S.</a> (1958). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/behaviorevolutio00roearich">"Adaptation, Natural Selection, and Behavior"</a></span>. In Roe, Anne; <a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">Simpson, George Gaylord</a> (eds.). <i>Behavior and Evolution</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/191989">191989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Adaptation%2C+Natural+Selection%2C+and+Behavior&rft.btitle=Behavior+and+Evolution&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F191989&rft.aulast=Pittendrigh&rft.aufirst=Colin+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbehaviorevolutio00roearich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice1980" class="citation book cs1">Price, Peter W. (1980). <i>The Evolutionary Biology of Parasites</i>. Monographs in Population Biology. Vol. 15. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08257-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08257-8"><bdi>978-0-691-08257-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5706295">5706295</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6993919">6993919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolutionary+Biology+of+Parasites&rft.series=Monographs+in+Population+Biology&rft.pages=1-237&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5706295&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6993919&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08257-8&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Peter+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProvine1986" class="citation book cs1">Provine, William B. (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sewallwrightevol00will"><i>Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology</i></a></span>. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68474-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68474-1"><bdi>978-0-226-68474-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12808844">12808844</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sewall+Wright+and+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.series=Science+and+its+Conceptual+Foundations&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12808844&rft.isbn=978-0-226-68474-1&rft.aulast=Provine&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsewallwrightevol00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuxtonSherrattSpeed2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Graeme_Ruxton" title="Graeme Ruxton">Ruxton, Graeme D.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_N._Sherratt" title="Thomas N. Sherratt">Sherratt, Thomas N.</a>; Speed, Michael P. (2004). <i>Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry</i>. Oxford Biology. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852859-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852859-3"><bdi>978-0-19-852859-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56644492">56644492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avoiding+Attack%3A+The+Evolutionary+Ecology+of+Crypsis%2C+Warning+Signals+and+Mimicry&rft.series=Oxford+Biology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56644492&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852859-3&rft.aulast=Ruxton&rft.aufirst=Graeme+D.&rft.au=Sherratt%2C+Thomas+N.&rft.au=Speed%2C+Michael+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSober1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Sober" title="Elliott Sober">Sober, Elliott</a> (1984). <i>The Nature of Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-19232-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-19232-3"><bdi>978-0-262-19232-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11114517">11114517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Selection%3A+Evolutionary+Theory+in+Philosophical+Focus&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11114517&rft.isbn=978-0-262-19232-3&rft.aulast=Sober&rft.aufirst=Elliott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSober1993" class="citation book cs1">Sober, Elliott (1993). <i>Philosophy of Biology</i>. Dimensions of Philosophy Series. <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-0785-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-0785-5"><bdi>978-0-8133-0785-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26974492">26974492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Biology&rft.series=Dimensions+of+Philosophy+Series&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26974492&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-0785-5&rft.aulast=Sober&rft.aufirst=Elliott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStebbins1950" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._Ledyard_Stebbins" title="G. Ledyard Stebbins">Stebbins, G. Ledyard Jr.</a> (1950). <a href="/wiki/Variation_and_Evolution_in_Plants" title="Variation and Evolution in Plants"><i>Variation and Evolution in Plants</i></a>. Columbia Biological Series. Vol. 16. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/294016">294016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Variation+and+Evolution+in+Plants&rft.series=Columbia+Biological+Series&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F294016&rft.aulast=Stebbins&rft.aufirst=G.+Ledyard+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSterelnyGriffiths1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kim_Sterelny" title="Kim Sterelny">Sterelny, Kim</a>; Griffiths, Paul E. (1999). <i>Sex and Death: An Introduction to Philosophy of Biology</i>. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-77304-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-77304-9"><bdi>978-0-226-77304-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40193587">40193587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex+and+Death%3A+An+Introduction+to+Philosophy+of+Biology&rft.series=Science+and+its+Conceptual+Foundations&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40193587&rft.isbn=978-0-226-77304-9&rft.aulast=Sterelny&rft.aufirst=Kim&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+Paul+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickler1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Wickler" title="Wolfgang Wickler">Wickler, Wolfgang</a> (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mimicryinplantsa00wick"><i>Mimicry in Plants and Animals</i></a></span>. World University Library. Translated from the German by R. D. Martin. <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill Education">McGraw-Hill</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/160314">160314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mimicry+in+Plants+and+Animals&rft.series=World+University+Library&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F160314&rft.aulast=Wickler&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmimicryinplantsa00wick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2010" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Edgar (2010). <i>Giraffe</i>. Animal (Reaktion Books). <a href="/wiki/Reaktion_Books" title="Reaktion Books">Reaktion Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-764-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-764-0"><bdi>978-1-86189-764-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/587198932">587198932</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giraffe&rft.series=Animal+%28Reaktion+Books%29&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F587198932&rft.isbn=978-1-86189-764-0&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_C._Williams_(biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="George C. Williams (biologist)">Williams, George C.</a> (1966). <a href="/wiki/Adaptation_and_Natural_Selection" title="Adaptation and Natural Selection"><i>Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought</i></a>. Princeton Science Library. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02615-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02615-2"><bdi>978-0-691-02615-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35230452">35230452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adaptation+and+Natural+Selection%3A+A+Critique+of+Some+Current+Evolutionary+Thought&rft.series=Princeton+Science+Library&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35230452&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02615-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1932" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Wright, Sewall</a> (1932). "The Roles of Mutation, Inbreeding, Crossbreeding and Selection in Evolution". In <a href="/wiki/Donald_F._Jones" title="Donald F. Jones">Jones, Donald F.</a> (ed.). <i>Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Genetics_Society_of_America" title="Genetics Society of America">Genetics Society of America</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/439596433">439596433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Roles+of+Mutation%2C+Inbreeding%2C+Crossbreeding+and+Selection+in+Evolution&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+Sixth+International+Congress+of+Genetics&rft.pub=Genetics+Society+of+America&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F439596433&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Sewall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdaptation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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speciation">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a> (<a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive isolation">Reproductive isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence of evolution">Evidence of evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a> (<a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a> · <a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation#Quantum_and_budding_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Quantum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation#Centrifugal_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Centrifugal</a> · <a href="/wiki/Founder_effect" title="Founder effect">Founder effect</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Clines</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ring_species" title="Ring species">Ring species</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Hybrid concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid speciation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Klepton" title="Klepton">Klepton</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=Recombinational_speciation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Recombinational speciation (page does not exist)">Recombination</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Evidence_for_speciation_by_reinforcement" title="Evidence for speciation by reinforcement">evidence</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_contact" title="Secondary contact">Secondary contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_displacement" title="Character displacement">Character displacement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speciation in taxa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_birds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in birds (page does not exist)">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_fish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in fish (page does not exist)">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_insects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in insects (page does not exist)">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_plants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in plants (page does not exist)">Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_the_fossil_record&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" 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1,\n [\"CITEREFDoblerDallaWagschalAgrawal2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEldredge1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEldredge1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEndler1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreemanHerron2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedlanderJordan1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuyma,_D._J.M._Slatkin1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuyma1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarciaRohrDyer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGogartenDoolittle2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGouldVrba1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroenWhiteman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGross2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartwellGoldbergFischerHood2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoekstraHirschmannBundeyInsel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHogan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolzingerFrickWink1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHull1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuskins1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutchinson1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuxley1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarageorgiGroenSumbulPelaez2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohDunnSodhiColwell2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKornfieldSmith2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamichhaneyBerglund2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamoreuxHutt1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeroi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLosos2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuriaDelbrück1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallet2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargulisFester1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaynard_Smith1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedawar1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonod1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoon1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMooreRegensteiner1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNachmanHoekstraD\u0026#039;Agostino2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagel1977\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOdling-SmeeLaland\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrr2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanchen1992\"] = 1,\n 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