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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Sabean colonization of Africa</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Sabaean_Kingdom.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Sabaean_Kingdom.png/240px-Sabaean_Kingdom.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Sabaean_Kingdom.png/360px-Sabaean_Kingdom.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Sabaean_Kingdom.png/480px-Sabaean_Kingdom.png 2x" data-file-width="918" data-file-height="1038" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">The Kingdom of Saba in its later days</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;">Modern day Ethiopia and Eritrea</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Sabean colonisation of Africa</b> was a process of <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> by <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabeans</a> that occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> during the first millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sabean_colonization_of_Africa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the oldest <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonisation</a> process in history occurred around 1000 BC, when the <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabeans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Arabia">Southern Arabia</a>, with a civilization based on agriculture, began to colonize the highlands of northern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many hold to this view, because according to archeology, "epigraphic and monumental evidence point to an indisputable South Arabian influence suggesting migration and colonization from Yemen in the early 1st millennium BC as the main factor of state formation on the highlands. Rock inscriptions in <a href="/wiki/Qohaito" title="Qohaito">Qohayto</a> (<a href="/wiki/Akal%C3%A4_Guzay" class="mw-redirect" title="Akalä Guzay">Akkala Guzay</a>, Eritrea) document the presence of individuals or small groups from Arabia on the highlands at this time."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The professor of anthropology Joseph W. Michels discovered based on his archeological surveying at Aksumite sites that "there is abundant evidence of specific Sabean traits such as inscription style, religious ideology and symbolism, art style and architectural techniques."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some other significant elements from this event, include the introduction of <a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South Semitic languages</a> to Ethiopia, replacing the native <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic languages</a>, and the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a> by Ethiopians, where it would later evolve into the <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez script">Ge'ez script</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_and_legacy">Impact and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sabean_colonization_of_Africa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Impact and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_features">Cultural features</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sabean_colonization_of_Africa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cultural features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sabean cultural diffusion into the Horn of Africa influenced the development of several civilizations like <a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">D'mt</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a>, and left an important mark in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ethiopia" title="History of Ethiopia">Ethiopian history</a> and culture. Scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been the founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been contested, and their influence has been reassessed for its impact on architectural, sociopolitical, religious, and cultic spheres.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of Ancient South Arabian script, which developed into Geʽez script, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Ancient Semitic religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sabean character of the pantheon is clearly evident in the worship of '<a href="/wiki/Almaqah" title="Almaqah">Almaqah</a>, to whom, in addition to the Great Sabean Temple at <a href="/wiki/Yeha" title="Yeha">Yeha</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> four other sanctuaries are known. Some of these are accompanied by the building dedications of Sabean stonemasons and can be identified archaeologically.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many other archaeological sites of this period in Ethiopia where some inscriptions have also been found which were executed in a Sabean-Himyaritic script. Near <a href="/wiki/Mekelle" title="Mekelle">Makalle</a>, for example, is where a seated female figure was found with a South Arabian inscription on the pedestal which also makes reference to South Arabia.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older inscriptions were found at <a href="/wiki/Yeha" title="Yeha">Yeha</a>, which some scholars identify with Ava, a city built by Sabean colonists, and which apparently fell into decay after the building of <a href="/wiki/Axum" title="Axum">Aksum</a> the "Sacred City of the Ethiopians."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only Yeha but also the ancient city of Aksum is considered by some scholars to have been founded by these Sabeans,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where old <a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a> inscriptions have also been found.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_influences">Genetic influences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sabean_colonization_of_Africa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Genetic influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anthropogenetic studies using blood samples on Ethiopians, have found that their allele and haplotype frequencies appear quite similar to South Arabians, and were considerably differentiated from that of other African peoples. Results were consistent with a common origin from a Cushitic-speaking group living in eastern Africa, with signals of influence from Arabia.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The populations used for identifying genetic relationships were: 1. Hutu, Sukuma, Nyaturu and Sandawe, 2. Sara, Mbugu and Sango, 3. South Arabians, Libyans and Egyptians, 4. Amhara, Oromo, Beja and Falasha, which all grouped into four tight clusters. On the projection axis, Amhara, Oromo, Beja and Falasha were genetically located in an intermediate position between the cluster made by Southern Arabians, and that of the Sub-Saharan Africans, with these tribes exhibiting high affinity towards Arabians.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2010 study found that their phylogenetic clock estimates of the <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_J-M267" title="Haplogroup J-M267">Haplogroup J1</a> in the Horn of Africa, were indirectly supported by a linguistic model for an introduction of Semitic from Arabia 2800 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014, a paper concluded that a likely source of some of the west Eurasian admixture in East Africans, especially the <a href="/wiki/Amhara_people" title="Amhara people">Amhara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tigrayans" title="Tigrayans">Tigray</a> who speak Ethiosemitic languages, could have been from southern Arabia and associated with the D’mt kingdom. They also noted the archeological work during this time period, shows architecture in the Ethiopian culture of D’mt has an “unmistakable South Arabian appearance in many details.” However, the team acknowledges there is debate as to whether these are from large movements of people, or simply adopted elite-driven cultural practices.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The population geneticist and professor <a href="/wiki/David_Reich_(geneticist)" title="David Reich (geneticist)">David Reich</a> noted in his 2018 publication on human origins: "There is significant archaeological evidence of intense contact and migration between Ethiopia and southern Arabia around 3,000 years BP. During the first millennium BC, southern Arabians from the Saba territory established a polity in the Abyssinian highlands of Ethiopia, and a new conglomerate cultural landscape called the Ethio-Sabean society emerged. This event overlaps with the timing of Eurasian genetic admixture signals in Ethiopian populations and is a good candidate for the source of Eurasian admixture in East Africa."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_the_Sabean_migration_hypothesis">Criticism of the Sabean migration hypothesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sabean_colonization_of_Africa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism of the Sabean migration hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some academics and Ethiopian scholars have highlighted issues with the extent of this migration, and argue for mutual cultural exchange without demographic replacement. <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Munro-Hay" title="Stuart Munro-Hay">Stuart Munro-Hay</a> and related researchers believe that the Sabaean "colonization" was minor, and limited to a few localities. It may have even simply represented a trading colony (trading outposts) or military installations in a symbiotic or military alliance between Sabaeans and the Ethiopian population of D'mt.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the script is clearly identical to that in southern Arabia, evidence exists of pre-Sabaean Semitic languages or a group of languages in Ethiopia during the Sabaic period already. Even with the similarities in writing, language, pantheon, and monuments with South Arabian civilizations, researchers contend there is no strong indication of a domination, dependency or control. It appears that, if the Sabaeans did move to Ethiopia, they were integrated by the local population by the 8th century BC, and likely even earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sabean_colonization_of_Africa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Kingdom of Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yemen" title="History of Yemen">History of Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habesha_peoples" title="Habesha peoples">Habesha people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sabean_colonization_of_Africa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJappGerlachHitgenSchnelle2011" class="citation journal cs1">Japp, Sarah; 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Harrassowitz Verlag. 2006. p. 283.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aethiopica%3A+International+Journal+of+Ethiopian+Studies&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv_wvAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dsabean%2Bcolonised&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertshaw1990" class="citation book cs1">Robertshaw, Peter (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cN1Tf1DncbgC&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA96"><i>A History of African Archaeology</i></a>. J. Currey. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85255-065-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85255-065-6"><bdi>978-0-85255-065-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+African+Archaeology&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=J.+Currey&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-85255-065-6&rft.aulast=Robertshaw&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcN1Tf1DncbgC%26dq%3Dsabean%2Byeha%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'AndreaManzoHarrowerHawkins2008" class="citation journal cs1">D'Andrea, A. 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Institute of Ethiopian Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archive.org&rft.atitle=Ethiopia%E2%80%99s+Historic+Ties+with+Yemen&rft.aulast=Pankhurst&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20060109162335%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.addistribune.com%2FArchives%2F2003%2F01%2F17-01-03%2FLet.htm%23expand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay" class="citation web cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf">"Aksum : an African civilisation of late antiquity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aksum+%3A+an+African+civilisation+of+late+antiquity&rft.pub=Edinburgh+%3A+Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.aulast=Munro-Hay&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20130123223427%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.dskmariam.org%2Fartsandlitreature%2Flitreature%2Fpdf%2Faksum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadnerMoellerPotts2023" class="citation book cs1">Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, Daniel T. (2023-04-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TPGxEAAAQBAJ&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA352"><i>The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume V: the Age of Persia</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-068766-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-068766-3"><bdi>978-0-19-068766-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+Volume+V%3A+the+Age+of+Persia&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023-04-07&rft.isbn=978-0-19-068766-3&rft.aulast=Radner&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Moeller%2C+Nadine&rft.au=Potts%2C+Daniel+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTPGxEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dsabean%2Byeha%26pg%3DPA352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonsall2019" class="citation book cs1">Bonsall, James (2019-09-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5xUSEAAAQBAJ&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA180"><i>New Global Perspectives on Archaeological Prospection: 13th International Conference on Archaeological Prospection, 28 August – 1 September 2019, Sligo – Ireland</i></a>. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78969-307-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78969-307-2"><bdi>978-1-78969-307-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Global+Perspectives+on+Archaeological+Prospection%3A+13th+International+Conference+on+Archaeological+Prospection%2C+28+August+%E2%80%93+1+September+2019%2C+Sligo+%E2%80%93+Ireland&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Archaeopress+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=2019-09-02&rft.isbn=978-1-78969-307-2&rft.aulast=Bonsall&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5xUSEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dsabean%2Byeha%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankhurst" class="citation web cs1">Pankhurst, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm#expand">"Ethiopia's Historic Ties with Yemen"</a>. <i>Archive.org</i>. Institute of Ethiopian Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archive.org&rft.atitle=Ethiopia%E2%80%99s+Historic+Ties+with+Yemen&rft.aulast=Pankhurst&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20060109162335%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.addistribune.com%2FArchives%2F2003%2F01%2F17-01-03%2FLet.htm%23expand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertshaw1990" class="citation book cs1">Robertshaw, Peter (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cN1Tf1DncbgC&dq=sabean+colonised&pg=PA96"><i>A History of African Archaeology</i></a>. J. Currey. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85255-065-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85255-065-6"><bdi>978-0-85255-065-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+African+Archaeology&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=J.+Currey&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-85255-065-6&rft.aulast=Robertshaw&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcN1Tf1DncbgC%26dq%3Dsabean%2Bcolonised%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIreland1895" class="citation book cs1">Ireland, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NBBih8TKXKAC&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA208"><i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute</i></a>. p. 208. <q>Some scholars consider the temple at <a href="/wiki/Yeha" title="Yeha">Yeha</a> to be the work of these Sabean colonists.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Anthropological+Institute&rft.pages=208&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Ireland&rft.aufirst=Royal+Anthropological+Institute+of+Great+Britain+and&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNBBih8TKXKAC%26dq%3Dsabean%2Byeha%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadnerMoellerPotts2023" class="citation book cs1">Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, Daniel T. (2023-04-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TPGxEAAAQBAJ&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA352"><i>The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume V: the Age of Persia</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 353. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-068766-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-068766-3"><bdi>978-0-19-068766-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+Volume+V%3A+the+Age+of+Persia&rft.pages=353&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023-04-07&rft.isbn=978-0-19-068766-3&rft.aulast=Radner&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Moeller%2C+Nadine&rft.au=Potts%2C+Daniel+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTPGxEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dsabean%2Byeha%26pg%3DPA352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaum1987" class="citation book cs1">Daum, Werner (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ylzAAAAMAAJ&q=sabean+yeha"><i>Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix</i></a>. Penguin Books Australia. p. 413. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7016-2292-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7016-2292-4"><bdi>978-3-7016-2292-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yemen%3A+3000+Years+of+Art+and+Civilisation+in+Arabia+Felix&rft.pages=413&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Australia&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3-7016-2292-4&rft.aulast=Daum&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-ylzAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dsabean%2Byeha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIreland1895" class="citation book cs1">Ireland, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NBBih8TKXKAC&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA208"><i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute</i></a>. p. 208.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Anthropological+Institute&rft.pages=208&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Ireland&rft.aufirst=Royal+Anthropological+Institute+of+Great+Britain+and&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNBBih8TKXKAC%26dq%3Dsabean%2Byeha%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCliffeDavidson1988" class="citation book cs1">Cliffe, Lionel; Davidson, Basil (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vjZhFR3vTvgC&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA68"><i>The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace</i></a>. The Red Sea Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-932415-37-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-932415-37-0"><bdi>978-0-932415-37-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Long+Struggle+of+Eritrea+for+Independence+and+Constructive+Peace&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=The+Red+Sea+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-932415-37-0&rft.aulast=Cliffe&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Basil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvjZhFR3vTvgC%26dq%3Dsabean%2Byeha%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASabean+colonization+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=22gaTnnU-F0C&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA88"><i>The Athenaeum</i></a>. 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