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Canuto"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Adriana Velázquez Morlet"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Francisco Estrada-Belli"> <meta name="citation_author" content="David Chatelain"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Diego Matadamas"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Michelle Pigott"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Juan Carlos Fernández Díaz"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024/10"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/10/29"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="98"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="401"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1340"> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="1358"> <meta name="citation_issn" content="0003-598X"> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1745-1744"> <meta name="citation_keywords" content="Central America; Maya Lowlands; remote sensing; lidar; low-density urbanism; settlement patterns"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/FFDB435047017853F26CFC5D8804B08D/S0003598X24001480a.pdf/div-class-title-running-out-of-empty-space-environmental-lidar-and-the-crowded-ancient-landscape-of-campeche-mexico-div.pdf"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Sampled to death? 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Here, the authors present their analysis of an environmental lidar dataset from Campeche, Mexico, which reveals previously unrecorded urbanism and dense regional-scale settlement. Both characteristics, the authors argue, are therefore demonstrably ubiquitous across the central Maya Lowlands."> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.15184/aqy.2024.148"> <link rel="alternate" href="/core/journals/antiquity/article/running-out-of-empty-space-environmental-lidar-and-the-crowded-ancient-landscape-of-campeche-mexico/FFDB435047017853F26CFC5D8804B08D" hreflang="en" /> <link rel="icon" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link href='//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Noto+Sans:400,700,400italic,700italic' rel='stylesheet' type='text/css'>  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/css/app.css?version=v7.401.0"/> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://usage.prod.aop.cambridge.org/v1/events"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/core/cambridge-core/public/bower_components/font-awesome/css/font-awesome.min.css"/> <script 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aria-hidden="true" class="breadcrumbs-wrapper__arrow" data-v-3692cf84>></span><a href="/core/journals/antiquity/issue/4F08B4B75649C1ECF3B143360ADCD9F1" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-3692cf84><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Volume 98 Issue 401</span> </a></li><li class="page-breadcrumbs__item" data-v-3692cf84><span aria-hidden="true" class="breadcrumbs-wrapper__arrow" data-v-3692cf84>></span><span data-v-3692cf84>Running out of empty space: environmental lidar and...</span></li></ul></div></div> <div class="language" data-v-3692cf84><ul class="language-switch" data-v-6b1118dd data-v-3692cf84><li aria-label="English" data-v-6b1118dd><span class="language-option current divider" data-v-6b1118dd>English</span></li><li aria-label="Français" data-v-6b1118dd><span role="button" tabindex="0" href="#" lang="fr" class="language-option" data-v-6b1118dd> Français </span></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <div class="container container__modified" data-v-01274b1d>  <div class="row" data-v-01274b1d><div role="complementary" aria-label="table of content" class="column__left" data-v-01274b1d><div class="col journal-container row" data-v-146270e8 data-v-01274b1d><img src="https://static.cambridge.org/covers/AQY_0_0_0/antiquity.jpg" alt="" class="journal__image" data-v-146270e8> <a href="/core/journals/antiquity" class="app-link journal__title app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-146270e8><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Antiquity </span> </a> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-146270e8></div>  <div id="toc" class="table-of-content" data-v-01274b1d><h2>Article contents</h2> <div id="toc-list-wrapper" class="table-of-content__wrapper"><ul id="toc-list" class="list"><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec0" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">Abstract</span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#sec1" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Introduction</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec2" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">The dataset</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec3" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Analytical methods</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec4" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Settlement patterns</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec5" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Conclusion</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec-das1" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Data availability statement</div></span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec-fs1" class="list__item__link"> <span><div class="toc-title">Funding statement</div></span></a></li>  <li class="list__item"><a href="#references-list" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">References</span></a></li></ul></div></div></div> <div class="column__main" data-v-01274b1d><div class="row" data-v-01274b1d><div class="column__main__left" data-v-01274b1d><div id="maincontent" class="col" data-v-862424e6 data-v-01274b1d> <hgroup data-v-862424e6><h1 data-v-862424e6>Running out of empty space: environmental lidar and the crowded ancient landscape of Campeche, Mexico</h1> </hgroup>     <div class="row published-date" data-v-862424e6><p data-v-862424e6> Published online by Cambridge University Press: <strong data-v-862424e6>29 October 2024</strong></p></div>   <div class="contributors-details" data-v-99f6eb26 data-v-862424e6><div class="row contributors" data-v-99f6eb26><div class="col" data-v-99f6eb26><div class="row contributor-type" data-v-792406ce data-v-99f6eb26> <div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Luke%20Auld-Thomas&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Luke Auld-Thomas</span> </a> <a target="_blank" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6590-4057" data-test-orcid="Luke Auld-Thomas" class="app-link contributor-type__contributor__orcid app-link__icon app-link--" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="Open the ORCID record for Luke Auld-Thomas" class="app-icon icon orcid" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a> <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Marcello%20A.%20Canuto&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Marcello A. Canuto</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Adriana%20Vel%C3%A1zquez%20Morlet&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Adriana Velázquez Morlet</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Francisco%20Estrada-Belli&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Francisco Estrada-Belli</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=David%20Chatelain&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>David Chatelain</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Diego%20Matadamas&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Diego Matadamas</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce>,</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Michelle%20Pigott&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Michelle Pigott</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce> and</span></div><div class="contributor-type__contributor" data-v-792406ce><a href="/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Juan%20Carlos%20Fern%C3%A1ndez%20D%C3%ADaz&eventCode=SE-AU" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-792406ce><span data-v-63dfaf6e>Juan Carlos Fernández Díaz</span> </a>  <span data-v-792406ce></span></div> </div> </div> <div class="col-2 collapse-link" data-v-99f6eb26><a href="#authors-details" data-toggle="collapse" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="authors-details" class="app-link collapsed app-link__text-icon app-link--secondary reverse" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-99f6eb26><img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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" alt="" class="app-icon icon arrow-down" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Show author details </span> </a></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-99f6eb26> <dl id="authors-details" class="authors-details collapse" data-v-2edb8da6 data-v-99f6eb26><div data-test-author="Luke Auld-Thomas" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Luke Auld-Thomas*</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA</span> </span><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Marcello A. Canuto" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Marcello A. Canuto</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA</span> </span><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Adriana Velázquez Morlet" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Adriana Velázquez Morlet</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH), Ciudad de México, México</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Francisco Estrada-Belli" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Francisco Estrada-Belli</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="David Chatelain" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>David Chatelain</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Diego Matadamas" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Diego Matadamas</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Michelle Pigott" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Michelle Pigott</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA</span> </span></div></dd></div><div data-test-author="Juan Carlos Fernández Díaz" class="row author" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-12 col-sm-2 title" data-v-2edb8da6>Juan Carlos Fernández Díaz</dt> <dd class="col content d-inline d-sm-flex" data-v-2edb8da6><span class="content__title" data-v-2edb8da6>Affiliation:</span> <div class="d-sm-flex flex-column flex-sm-1 d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6>National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping (NCALM), University of Houston, USA</span> </span></div></dd></div> <div class="row" data-v-2edb8da6><dt class="col-sm-2 col-12 title" data-v-2edb8da6> * </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="row" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="d-sm-flex d-inline flex-sm-1 flex-sm-wrap" data-v-2edb8da6><div class="d-inline" data-v-2edb8da6><span data-v-2edb8da6><div class="corresp"><span class="label">*</span>Author for correspondence ✉ <a href="mailto:lauldtho@tulane.edu">lauldtho@tulane.edu</a></div></span></div></div></div></dd></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-2edb8da6></dl></div></div> <div id="app-tabs" class="tabs" data-v-1d90c6ce data-v-01274b1d><div id="app-tabs-wrapper" class="tabs__wrapper" data-v-1d90c6ce><div role="navigation" aria-label="tab navigation" class="container" data-v-1d90c6ce><a data-toggle="collapse" href="#appTabs" role="button" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="appTabs" class="tabs__collapse collapsed d-sm-none d-print-none" data-v-1d90c6ce><span data-v-1d90c6ce></span> <span class="tabs-arrow-up" data-v-1d90c6ce></span> <span class="tabs-arrow-down" data-v-1d90c6ce></span></a> <ul id="appTabs" role="tablist" class="nav nav-tabs tabs__list collapse show" data-v-1d90c6ce><li role="none" class="tabs__tab" data-v-1d90c6ce><a aria-selected="true" href="#article-tab" role="tab" aria-controls="article-tab" tabindex="-1" class="active" data-v-1d90c6ce>Article </a></li><li role="none" class="tabs__tab" data-v-1d90c6ce><a href="#figures-tab" role="tab" aria-controls="figures-tab" tabindex="-1" data-v-1d90c6ce>Figures </a></li><li role="none" class="tabs__tab" data-v-1d90c6ce><a href="#metrics-tab" role="tab" aria-controls="metrics-tab" tabindex="-1" data-v-1d90c6ce>Metrics </a></li></ul></div></div> <div tabindex="0" role="region" aria-label="Tab content" class="tab-content" data-v-1d90c6ce><div id="article-tab" class="tab-pane active" data-v-43a4d572><div id="toc-mobile" class="table-of-content-mobile d-sm-none" data-v-43a4d572><a data-toggle="collapse" href="#toc-list-mobile" role="button" aria-expanded="false" class="toc-collapse-switch collapsed"><span class="default-heading">Article contents</span>  <span class="toc-arrow-up"></span> <span class="toc-arrow-down"></span></a> <ul id="toc-list-mobile" class="list collapse"><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec0" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">Abstract</span></a></li> <li class="list__item"><a href="#sec1" class="list__item__link"> <span>Introduction</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec2" class="list__item__link"> <span>The dataset</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec3" class="list__item__link"> <span>Analytical methods</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec4" class="list__item__link"> <span>Settlement patterns</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec5" class="list__item__link"> <span>Conclusion</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec-das1" class="list__item__link"> <span>Data availability statement</span></a></li><li class="list__item"><a href="#sec-fs1" class="list__item__link"> <span>Funding statement</span></a></li>  <li class="list__item"><a href="#references-list" class="list__item__link"><span class="toc-title">References</span></a></li></ul></div> <div class="action-bar" data-v-43a4d572><div class="row items"> <div class="app-dropdown d-print-none" data-v-fab090b8 data-v-113567da data-v-43a4d572><button aria-expanded="false" data-test-id="buttonSavePDFOptions" id="save-pdf-dropdown" class="app-button 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target="_blank" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?publisherName=CUP&publication=AQY&title=Running%20out%20of%20empty%20space%3A%20environmental%20lidar%20and%20the%20crowded%20ancient%20landscape%20of%20Campeche%2C%20Mexico&publicationDate=29%20October%202024&author=Luke%20Auld-Thomas%2C%20Marcello%20A.%20Canuto%2C%20Adriana%20Vel%C3%A1zquez%20Morlet%2C%20Francisco%20Estrada-Belli%2C%20David%20Chatelain%2C%20Diego%20Matadamas%2C%20Michelle%20Pigott%2C%20Juan%20Carlos%20Fern%C3%A1ndez%20D%C3%ADaz©right=Copyright%20%C2%A9%20The%20Author(s)%2C%202024.%20Published%20by%20Cambridge%20University%20Press%20on%20behalf%20of%20Antiquity%20Publications%20Ltd&contentID=10.15184%2Faqy.2024.148&startPage=1340&endPage=1358&orderBeanReset=True&volumeNum=98&issueNum=401&oa=CC-BY" data-test-id="buttonRightLink" class="app-link rights-link d-print-none app-link__text-icon app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-92ee52a2 data-v-43a4d572><img src="/core/page-component/img/rights-icon.d4a677c.svg" alt="" class="app-icon icon rights" data-v-d2c09870 data-v-63dfaf6e><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Rights & Permissions </span> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a></div> <div class="share-modal-overlay" style="display:none;" data-v-43a4d572></div> <div data-spy="scroll" data-target="#toc" class="scrollspy-content" data-v-43a4d572> <div id="sec0" class="col article-abstract sec" data-v-2fa8b348 data-v-43a4d572>  <div class="abstract-graphical" data-v-2fa8b348><h2>Abstract</h2> <div class="abstract-graphical__content"><div class="abstract" data-abstract-type="graphical"><p><img class="graphic" orientation mimesubtype="png" mimetype="image" position type href="S0003598X24001480_figAb.png" src="https://static.cambridge.org/content/id/urn%3Acambridge.org%3Aid%3Aarticle%3AS0003598X24001480/resource/name/S0003598X24001480_figAb.png?pub-status=live" /></p></div></div> <div class="abstract-graphical__text"><div class="abstract" data-abstract-type="normal"><p>As airborne lidar surveys reveal a growing sample of urbanised tropical landscapes, questions linger about the sampling bias of such research leading to inflated estimates of urban extent and population magnitude. ‘Found’ datasets from remote sensing conducted for non-archaeological purposes and thus not subject to archaeological site bias, provide an opportunity to address these concerns through pseudorandom sampling. Here, the authors present their analysis of an environmental lidar dataset from Campeche, Mexico, which reveals previously unrecorded urbanism and dense regional-scale settlement. Both characteristics, the authors argue, are therefore demonstrably ubiquitous across the central Maya Lowlands.</p></div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a></div> </div>  <div class="keywords" data-v-86c27100 data-v-43a4d572><h2 data-v-86c27100>Keywords</h2> <div class="row keywords__pills" data-v-86c27100><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=Central America" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>Central America</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=Maya Lowlands" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>Maya Lowlands</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=remote sensing" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>remote sensing</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=lidar" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>lidar</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=low-density urbanism" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>low-density urbanism</span></a><a href="/core/search?filters[keywords]=settlement patterns" data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100><span data-v-f0b31360 data-v-86c27100>settlement patterns</span></a></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator default" data-v-7036083a data-v-86c27100></div>  <dl class="article-details" data-v-6e32a161 data-v-43a4d572><div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Type </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161>Research Article</dd></div> <div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Information </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161><div class="content__journal" data-v-6e32a161><a href="/core/journals/antiquity" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Antiquity </span> </a> <span data-v-6e32a161> , <a href="/core/journals/antiquity/volume/87C69FC9A297320915DFC82CFAE65D83" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Volume 98 </span> </a></span> <span data-v-6e32a161> , <a href="/core/journals/antiquity/issue/4F08B4B75649C1ECF3B143360ADCD9F1" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--underlined" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>Issue 401 </span> </a></span> <span data-v-6e32a161>, October 2024</span>  <span data-v-6e32a161>, pp. 1340 - 1358</span> </div> <div class="doi-data" data-v-6e32a161><div data-v-6e32a161>DOI: <a target="_blank" href="https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2024.148" class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" data-v-63dfaf6e data-v-6e32a161><span class="text" data-v-63dfaf6e>https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2024.148 </span> <span class="sr-only" data-v-63dfaf6e>[Opens in a new window]</span></a></div> </div>  </dd></div> <div class="row creative-commons" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 creative-commons__title"> Creative Commons </dt> <dd class="col"><div class="creative-commons__content"><div class="creative-commons__icons"><img src="/core/page-component/img/license-cc-icon.e3a74ed.svg" alt="Creative Common License - CC" class="app-icon creative-commons__icon license-cc" data-v-d2c09870><img src="/core/page-component/img/license-by-icon.33e212c.svg" alt="Creative Common License - BY" class="app-icon creative-commons__icon license-by" data-v-d2c09870></div> <div class="creative-commons__description">This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</a>), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</div></div></dd></div>  <div class="row" data-v-6e32a161><dt class="col-12 col-sm-3 col-md-2_5 title" data-v-6e32a161> Copyright </dt> <dd class="col content" data-v-6e32a161><div data-v-6e32a161> Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd </div></dd></div></dl>  <div id="content-container" class="content-container" data-v-43a4d572><div class="content-box"><div class="article research-article NLM"> <div class="body"> <p class="p"> </p><section><div class="fig"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_figU1.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="768" height="768" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_figU1.png" data-zoomable="true"></div></div></section> <div class="sec intro" data-magellan-destination="sec1" id="sec1"><h2 class="A"> Introduction</h2> <p class="p"> Archaeologists increasingly recognise that the global tropics and sub-tropics were home to a rich variety of urban settlement traditions in antiquity. While many of these settlement systems shared a tendency toward spatial dispersion—what is frequently called ‘low-density urbanism’ (Fletcher <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref21"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Fletcher</span>1995</a>, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref22"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Fletcher</span>2009</a>, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref23"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Fletcher and Smith</span>2012</a>)—there is a burgeoning recognition that the ancient world's low-density urban landscapes were themselves heterogeneous, with substantial gradients in settlement density within settlements, between settlements and their hinterlands, and across subregions (Chase <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Chase</span>2011</a>; Evans <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref17"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Evans</span>2013</a>; Fisher <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref20"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Fisher, Cohen, Fernández-Diaz and Leisz</span>2017</a>; Canuto <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto</span>2018</a>; Jackmond <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref33"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Jackmond, Fonoti and Tautunu</span>2018</a>; Prümers <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref43"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Prümers, Betancourt, Iriarte, Robinson and Schaich</span>2022</a>; Thompson <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref56"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Thompson</span>2023</a>; Rostain <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref47"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Rostain</span>2024</a>). Concurrently, archaeologists in many of these same regions are confronting ‘dense pasts’ (see Evans <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref18"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Evans, Aldred and Cooper</span>2023</a>), where the accumulation of research has simply turned up more of everything than the discipline contemplated previously: more settlements, more cities, more landesque capital.</p> <p class="p"> In recent years these two developments in the archaeology of tropical urbanism—the recognition of high-amplitude variability on the one hand, and of a dense past on the other—have come into tension with one another, such that where some researchers see evidence for dense regional-scale populations inhabiting thoroughly urbanised landscapes, others see evidence of a biased sample that over-represents one end of the settlement density gradient. It thus remains an open question whether those areas as yet unmapped by archaeologists hold further evidence of a dense past or reveal a less densely occupied corrective.</p> <p class="p"> Here we seek to answer this question for the central Maya Lowlands (see Canuto <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto</span>2018</a>: fig. 1), one of the ancient world's best-known, but also most contentious, examples of tropical urbanism. Our aim in this article is to assess whether overall settlement density and local-scale variability in settlement density (i.e. urbanisation) have been over-estimated by archaeologically motivated, ‘site focused’ surveys. To do this we enlist a new expedient and pseudorandom regional-scale sample of settlement drawn from remote sensing data across one of the Maya Lowlands’ largest ‘blank spots’: eastern Campeche, Mexico.</p> <p class="p"> Since at least the 1940s, researchers have known that the Classic period Maya (AD 250–900) transformed the rugged interior of the Mexican state of Campeche into a densely settled and extensively engineered landscape (Merwin <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref39"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Merwin</span>1913</a>; Ruppert & Denison <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref48"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ruppert and Denison</span>1943</a>). A series of projects undertaken near the modern town of Xpuhil since the 1970s demonstrate that this region was both crowded with settlement and heavily engineered through durable landscape modifications such as terraces and field walls (Eaton <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref16"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Eaton</span>1975</a>; Turner II <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref57"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Turner, Harrison and Turner</span>1978</a>; Thomas <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref54"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Thomas</span>1981</a>; Suárez Aguilar <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref53"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Suárez Aguilar</span>2007</a>; Arnauld <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref1"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Arnauld, Michelet and Nondédéo</span>2013</a>; Lemonnier & Vannière <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref36"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lemonnier and Vannière</span>2013</a>). Nevertheless, for most of the twentieth century, archaeological research in east-central Campeche and adjacent Quintana Roo was scant compared to other parts of the Maya Lowlands, such that the authoritative database of known and geolocated sites (Witschey & Brown <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref62"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Witschey, Brown and Braswell</span>2014</a>) shows large swaths of the region to be essentially <em class="italic">terra incognita</em>.</p> <p class="p"> In the past decade a growing number of field research projects in Campeche have employed airborne lidar survey (e.g. Reese-Taylor <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref44"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Reese-Taylor</span>2016</a>; Hernández Gómez <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref29"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hernández Gómez</span>2021</a>; Šprajc <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Šprajc</span>2021</a>), which has emerged as a powerful tool for settlement archaeology, capable of documenting entire landscapes in minute detail even under dense forest cover (e.g. Chase <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref10"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Chase</span>2011</a>; Canuto <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto</span>2018</a>). Separately, researchers have also examined lidar datasets collected for non-archaeological purposes, notably those for ecological monitoring (Schroder <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref49"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Schroder</span>2020</a>; Hutson <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref31"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hutson, Dunning, Cook, Ruhl, Barth and Conley</span>2021</a>) and civil engineering (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref32">2020</a>; Pérez Rivas <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref40"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Pérez Rivas, Corral, Uitz and Morlet</span>2023</a>). Collectively referred to as environmental lidar, these expedient datasets have the advantage of being effectively random with regards to the archaeological record; as the data were collected without regard for archaeological questions they are unlikely to contain the same biases as archaeologically motivated surveys. In the Maya Lowlands and elsewhere (Golden <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref27"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Golden</span>2016</a>; García Sánchez <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref25"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference García Sánchez</span>2018</a>; Schroder <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref49"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Schroder</span>2020</a>; Kokalj & Mast <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref35"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Kokalj and Mast</span>2021</a>; Peripato <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref41"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Peripato</span>2023</a>; Stauffer <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref52"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Stauffer, Grooms, Hu, Mersmann, Kidder and Henry</span>2023</a>), archaeological re-analysis of these environmental lidar datasets represents a promising new development in regional sampling methodology (Plog & Flannery <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref42"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Plog, Flannery and Flannery</span>1976</a>; see also Banning <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref3"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Banning</span>2021</a>) with an attractive combination of high spatial resolution, broad spatial coverage, limited archaeological bias and low (or no) cost. In Mexico, some environmental lidar datasets have been made freely available to the public—notably the transects from NASA's G-LiHT mission (Goddard's Lidar, Hyperspectral and Thermal Imager mission) (Cook <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref11"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Cook</span>2013</a>)—in addition to the government's own high-resolution lidar data, fostering collaboration among researchers as well as open science, more generally.</p> <p class="p"> Here, we present an archaeological analysis of approximately 122km<sup class="sup">2</sup> of high-quality airborne lidar data collected in 2013 as part of a forest monitoring project called Alianza M-REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation in Mexico), spearheaded by the Nature Conservancy, Mexico. This dataset—hereafter ‘Alianza’—uniquely comprises both transect and areal (quadrat or block) survey samples, permitting a pseudorandom sample of settlement patterns in Campeche that is both longitudinal and contextual (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig01">Figure 1</a>). </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig01" id="fig01"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig1.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1583" height="1853" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig1.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 1.</span> Alianza lidar survey areas in Campeche (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <p class="p"> In this article, we introduce the dataset and provide an overview of the archaeological landscape that it reveals. We argue that the Alianza data demonstrate a range of ancient settlement densities comparable to those documented by site-focused archaeological survey in the region, from nearly vacant rural landscapes to dense urban areas. Despite this survey's lack of archaeological “site bias” (c.f. Ringle <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref46"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata</span>2021</a>: 46–47), we conclude that the Alianza datasets support the notion of a populous and urban ancient Maya landscape consistent with other datasets (Canuto <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto</span>2018</a>; Schroder <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref49"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Schroder</span>2020</a>; Canuto & Auld-Thomas <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref6"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto and Auld-Thomas</span>2021</a>, <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto, Auld-Thomas, Chase, Chase and Chase</span>2024</a>). In other words, we suggest that dense regional-scale settlement and high-amplitude variability in local-scale settlement density (reflective of urbanisation) are characteristic of the central Maya Lowlands and not the product of sampling bias (contra Webster <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref61"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Webster</span>2018</a>). More detailed quantitative analysis of the archaeological features within this and other pseudorandom datasets will be published elsewhere in the future.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec2" id="sec2"><h2 class="A"> The dataset</h2> <p class="p"> The lidar data were collected in 2013 by the Mexican firm CartoData using a Riegl LMS-Q780 sensor, processed by the Woods Hole Research Center (WHRC) and made freely available by Alianza M-REDD+ (Walker <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref60"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Walker</span>2015</a>). The dataset consists of three transects and three survey blocks (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig01">Figure 1</a>). The transects are roughly 275m wide and approximately 213km long, for a total coverage area of 58.3km<sup class="sup">2</sup>. The survey blocks total 64.1km<sup class="sup">2</sup> (<a class="xref table" href="#tab01">Table 1</a>) and were conducted in three areas: 1) south of the town of Xpuhil, near the well-known site of Río Bec; 2) adjacent to the villages of Dos Lagunas and Bel Ha where several patio groups have been reported along the highway (Merk <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref38"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Merk</span>2004</a>); and 3) near the town of Ucum in northernmost Campeche, an area with no reported sites. A fourth survey block, measuring about 174km<sup class="sup">2</sup>, falls in the Puuc-Bolonchen hills of the state of Yucatan (see Ringle <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref46"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata</span>2021</a>), and is not considered further here. </p><div class="table-wrap" data-magellan-destination="tab01" id="tab01"><div class="caption"><p class="p"><span class="label">Table 1.</span> Settlement data in Alianza lidar in Campeche. Density is measured in structures per square kilometre.</p></div> <span> <div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_tab1.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="765" height="215" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_tab1.png" data-zoomable="true"></div> </span> </div> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec3" id="sec3"><h2 class="A"> Analytical methods</h2> <p class="p"> In the original Alianza digital terrain models, larger archaeological mounds were vertically ‘truncated’, indicating that a subset of real ground points in the lidar point cloud had not been classified as such. We reprocessed the original point clouds using parameters developed at the National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping (NCALM) specifically for archaeological prospection (Fernandez-Diaz <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref19"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Fernandez-Diaz, Carter, Shrestha and Glennie</span>2014</a>), producing a digital terrain model with a spatial resolution of 1m per pixel (ground-point density: 5.01points/m<sup class="sup">2</sup>). This dramatically improved the representation of ancient architecture, though the overall visibility of archaeological features across the dataset was only slightly improved. Digital terrain models were visualised primarily using Simple Red Relief (Auld-Thomas <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref2"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Auld-Thomas</span>2022</a>), which highlights slopes in red and local elevation differences in a gradient of dark blue-green to bright yellow (e.g. <a class="xref fig" href="#fig04">Figures 4</a> & <a class="xref fig" href="#fig07">7</a>), and the Visualization for Archaeological Topography (Verbovšek <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref59"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Verbovšek, Popit and Kokalj</span>2019</a>), which blends a traditional computational hillshade with additional terrain parameters to enhance subtle topographic details. All features of archaeological interest were manually digitised as vector polygons in QGIS and ArcGIS Pro. Digitized features were reviewed by at least three analysts working independently; where analysts disagreed, features were reevaluated by all parties and then included or excluded from the final dataset by majority vote.</p> <p class="p"> To our knowledge, archaeological fieldwork has been conducted only in the Puuc block and not any of the other areas intersected by the survey; and no field validation of the analysis presented here has yet taken place. This means that our analysis carries three caveats. First, over the decade since lidar was first deployed in the service of Mesoamerican archaeology, in no instance has field validation resulted in a net decrease in the total number of buildings identified (e.g. Reese-Taylor <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref44"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Reese-Taylor</span>2016</a>; Canuto & Auld-Thomas <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref5"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto, Auld-Thomas, Barrientos Q, Canuto and López</span>2020</a>; Thompson <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref55"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Thompson</span>2020</a>; Garrison <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref26"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Garrison, Thompson, Krause, Eshleman, Fernandez-Diaz, Baldwin and Cambranes</span>2022</a>), because false positives are reliably offset by a greater number of false negatives—small, unmounded or barely mounded buildings that are seldom detectable in digital terrain models. Nor in that time has field validation of lidar-derived settlement data resulted in a meaningful alteration to the observed spatial distribution of (mounded, surface-visible) settlement.</p> <p class="p"> The second caveat concerns the long-recognised prevalence of rockpiles (or ‘chich’ mounds) throughout the Alianza coverage area. Although their exact use is unknown (Turner II <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref58"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Turner</span>1983</a>; Dunning <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref12"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dunning</span>1992</a>; Kepecs & Boucher <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref34"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Kepecs, Boucher and Fedick</span>1996</a>; Lemonnier & Vannière <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref36"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lemonnier and Vannière</span>2013</a>; Hutson <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref31"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hutson, Dunning, Cook, Ruhl, Barth and Conley</span>2021</a>), most of these rockpiles do not appear to have fulfilled a residential function. Even so, their general shape (as depicted in lidar data) is similar to that of small house-mounds. Despite efforts to mitigate the impact of this ambiguity during our digitisation process, our identification efforts likely mistook some rockpiles for structures, leading to marginally inflated structure tallies overall.</p> <p class="p"> The net result of these first two caveats is that all feature counts and related analyses of density presented here should be regarded as preliminary values that will inevitably be revised through subsequent analyses, both in the field and the computer lab. Overall feature counts will almost certainly increase, but the proportion of features classified as buildings or some other anthropogenic feature, such as rockpiles, is also likely to change. We maintain, however, that the general characteristics and spatial patterning of settlement can be reliably described from our initial remote analysis.</p> <p class="p"> The final caveat concerns chronology and contemporaneity. In the central lowlands, archaeologists have long recognised a “tremendous Late Classic bias” (Rice & Puleston <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref45"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Rice, Puleston and Ashmore</span>1981</a>: 137) in buildings visible on the surface; nearly every archaeological project in the region has reported that between 75 and 95 per cent of excavated buildings have Late Classic components (e.g. Canuto & Auld-Thomas <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto, Auld-Thomas, Chase, Chase and Chase</span>2024</a>). Similar chronological summaries are not available for the northern lowlands, although the chronological picture there is generally regarded as more complex and there is far more Terminal Classic and Postclassic occupation compared with the central lowlands. The lack of chronological control in the area sampled by the Alianza survey means that the northern and southern portions of the dataset should not be considered synchronic, though elements of each surely overlap in time.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec4" id="sec4"><h2 class="A"> Settlement patterns</h2> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec4-1" id="sec4-1"><h3 class="B"> General observations</h3> <p class="p"> Block 1, located just south and east of the important site of Río Bec, includes one probable example of the distinctive paired pseudopyramid architectural style that takes its name from that site (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig02">Figure 2a</a>). The character of settlement, including the ubiquity of agricultural infrastructure, is identical to that recorded by pedestrian survey at Río Bec: a sprawling ‘dense rural’ agro-settlement landscape with little of the imposing public architecture so common elsewhere in the Maya region (Arnauld <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref1"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Arnauld, Michelet and Nondédéo</span>2013</a>; Lemonnier & Vannière <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref36"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Lemonnier and Vannière</span>2013</a>). One notable exception, however, is an architectural complex adjacent to a deep sinkhole giving access to a partially collapsed cave system. The architectural complex is encircled by a narrow ditch, the small scale of which, together with the lack of an associated embankment, precludes a defensive interpretation (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig02">Figure 2b</a>). The ditch is in the shape of a quatrefoil, canonically the shape used to represent caves and sinkholes in Mesoamerican art (Guernsey <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref28"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Guernsey</span>2010</a>). This unusual pairing of prominent sinkhole and quatrefoil ditch warrants future investigation. </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig02" id="fig02"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig2.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1583" height="1154" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig2.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 2.</span> Left) Block 1 survey block, with building footprints in black and platform footprints in purple; top right) probable Río Bec-style complex marked by *; bottom right) sinkhole with associated quatrefoil ditch (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <p class="p"> Block 2 directly overlies the epicentre of a major urban area that was previously unknown to the scientific community. This city, which we call Valeriana (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig03">Figures 3</a>, <a class="xref fig" href="#fig04">4</a> & <a class="xref fig" href="#fig05">5</a>) after an adjacent freshwater lagoon, encompasses two major hubs of monumental architecture 2km apart, linked by continuous dense settlement and landscape engineering. The discovery of Valeriana highlights the fact that there are still major gaps in our knowledge of the existence or absence of large sites within as-yet unmapped areas of the Maya Lowlands. Settlement and agricultural infrastructure completely fill the 16.6km<sup class="sup">2</sup> survey area. The style and density of architecture closely matches that seen in the Chactun-Tamchen area, some 20km to the south-west (Šprajc <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Šprajc</span>2021</a>), as well as that recently recorded by archaeological salvage work on the Maya Train project (Pérez Rivas, <em class="italic">pers. comm.</em>). </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig03" id="fig03"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig3.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1583" height="1157" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig3.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 3.</span> Block 2, showing the major site of Valeriana. Structure footprints in black, platform footprints in purple. Two mound groups adjacent to the highway were reported by Merk (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref38"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Merk</span>2004</a>) (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig04" id="fig04"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig4.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1583" height="1154" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig4.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 4.</span> Detail of Valeriana site core, in the north-east corner of Block 2 (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig05" id="fig05"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig5.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="768" height="2168" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig5.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 5.</span> Settlement and agricultural land modification in Block 2, visualisation for archaeological topography. Compare with figures in Šprajc <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Šprajc</span>2021</a> (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <p class="p"> The larger of Valeriana's two monumental precincts has all the hallmarks of a Classic Maya political capital: multiple enclosed plazas connected by a broad causeway; temple pyramids; a ballcourt; a reservoir formed by damming an arroyo (a seasonal watercourse); and a probable E-Group assemblage, an architectural arrangement that generally indicates a founding date prior to AD 150 (Freidel <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref24"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Freidel, Chase, Dowd and Murdock</span>2017</a>). Furthermore, the same style of curved, ‘amphitheatre’ residential patios first identified by Ruppert and Denison (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref48"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ruppert and Denison</span>1943</a>) at the site of Pechal and reported in the northern sector of Šprajc and colleagues’ (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Šprajc</span>2021</a>) lidar survey are also present at Valeriana, making this a strongly characteristic regional style. Valeriana's architectural epicentre occupies the north-eastern extreme of Block 2, indicating that the settled area associated with it continues beyond the margins of the Alianza dataset. It likely continues at least 5km north, where Transect 2 records identical density and style of buildings and agricultural infrastructure (see below).</p> <p class="p"> Block 3, by contrast, has sparse and modest settlement (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig06">Figure 6</a>), consisting of scattered or loosely clustered residences with no monumental architecture and limited investment in water storage. Notably, the settlement here does include so-called ‘annular structures’, ring-shaped structures that are common in the Puuc region and were used in the production of lime plaster (Seligson <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref50"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Seligson, Ruiz and Pingarrón</span>2019</a>). </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig06" id="fig06"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig6.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1583" height="1151" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig6.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 6.</span> Settlement in Block 3 (building footprints in black). Annular structures are associated with lime plaster production (Ringle <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref46"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata</span>2021</a>). Details A, B and C illustrate Northern Lowland settlement morphology, compare with <a class="xref fig" href="#fig07">Figure 7</a> (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec4-2" id="sec4-2"><h3 class="B"> Settlement density</h3> <p class="p"> With a total of 6764 structures (strs) in the entire dataset, the aggregate settlement density is 55.3strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>, comparable to the 49strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup> recently reported by Schroder and colleagues (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref41"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Peripato</span>2020</a>) for a portion of the G-LiHT transects in the same region. These figures are relevant to assessments of regional-scale settlement density and population history—for instance, they exceed regional-scale settlement density reported for any part of Belize or Guatemala (Canuto & Auld-Thomas <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref7"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto, Auld-Thomas, Chase, Chase and Chase</span>2024</a>). However, they explain little about the degree to which a settlement system was urbanised, which requires an appreciation of local-scale variability or density gradients. To accommodate the distinct spatial qualities of quadrat and transect data, we assess density gradients separately for the Alianza blocks and transects.</p> <p class="p"> To calculate settlement density gradients in the survey blocks, we used a kernel density estimation, fitting a quartic kernel with a 565m bandwidth over each structure point with an output cell size of 5m. We did the same for the only pedestrian surveys conducted at comparable scale and completeness in the same region, namely at Calakmul (May Hau <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref37"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hau, R, Muñoz, Gonzalez Heredia and Folan</span>1990</a>), Oxpemul (Barnes <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref4"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Barnes</span>2009</a>) and Becan (Thomas <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref54"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Thomas</span>1981</a>). Comparing these ‘site-centred’ block surveys with ‘random’ block surveys illustrates that the latter fit comfortably within the range of densities suggested by the former (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig07">Figure 7</a>). Block 1 (range: 0–195strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>) falls between densities recorded at Oxpemul (range: 0–149strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>) and Becan (range: 0–264strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>), while Block 2 (range: 0–426strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>) displays a density gradient only surpassed by the behemoth site of Calakmul (range: 0–770strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>). Notably, the placement of Block 2 vis-à-vis Valeriana's dense epicentre creates an edge effect precisely in the area where settlement density is greatest; that city's urban core is undoubtedly both larger and denser than our kernel density estimation suggests. Block 3 (range: 0–84strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>) shows the lowest, most ‘rural’, settlement distribution of all six survey blocks; block-level density here is comparable to that reported for rural areas such as the Corona-Achiotal region in northern Guatemala (Canuto & Auld-Thomas <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref6"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto and Auld-Thomas</span>2021</a>), though it is also more evenly distributed. In sum, Alianza's three pseudorandom survey blocks recorded: 1) a low-density rural area; 2) a moderately dense periurban or ‘dense rural’ area; and 3) a large, dense city—precisely the range of variability suggested by ‘site-centred’ pedestrian and lidar surveys. </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig07" id="fig07"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig7.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1594" height="1332" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig7.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 7.</span> Comparison of settlement density between six areas in central Campeche (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <p class="p"> Due to the narrowness of the transects (between 200m and 300m), we devised a binning/segmentation procedure to assess variability in settlement density. Schroder and colleagues (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref41"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Peripato</span>2020</a>) used a similar strategy in their analysis of the G-LiHT data, dividing the transects into roughly 2km<sup class="sup">2</sup> segments (approximately 8km in length). We reasoned that bins of that length would be unlikely to capture significant short-scale variation in settlement density, since even the largest Maya cities’ epicentres seldom exceed 4km in any linear dimension and are often bounded by vacant wetlands and sparsely occupied rugged terrain (Canuto <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref8"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto</span>2018</a>); the effect of segments this long is to reduce a city's analytical visibility. Consequently, we employ a segment size of 25ha (approximately 1km in length). These reveal greater variability in settlement density, allowing us to identify areas of nucleation (potential loci of ‘urbanising processes’) as well as areas with little or no settlement (‘hinterlands’).</p> <p class="p"> Dense settlement is most broadly sustained at the eastern end of Transect 2, only 5km to the north of Block 2 and the site of Valeriana, suggesting that the region encompassing Block 2 and the eastern end of Transect 2 is part of an extended high-density settlement system (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig08">Figure 8C</a>), like the one recorded by Špracj and colleagues (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Šprajc</span>2021</a>) around Chactun—indeed, the Alianza and Chactun survey areas are close enough that they may simply capture parts of a single sprawling conurbation. </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig08" id="fig08"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig8.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1583" height="1898" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig8.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 8.</span> Close-ups of transects; A) Transect 1; B) southern tip of Transect 1; C) eastern end of Transect 2. All densities expressed as structures per square kilometre (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <p class="p"> There are other areas where density appears to spike to levels typical of ‘urban’ landscapes. Two are found along Transect 1, at points near the known centres of Dzibilnocac and (somewhat farther north) Santa Rosa Xtampak (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig08">Figure 8A</a>). A third localised spike in density corresponds to a previously unreported monumental complex at the extreme southern terminus of Transect 1 (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig08">Figure 8B</a>); because this complex occupies the southern end of the transect, it is impossible to say how large it may be or how urban the settlement associated with it was. Transect 3 records the lowest density of all three transects; nowhere does it intersect densities typical of urban areas, and its eastern leg has the longest stretch of low-density segments (range: 0–0.84strs/ha or 0–84strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>) in the entire dataset, matching the low-density Block 3 and suggesting the existence of a large and sparse settlement zone in north-easternmost Campeche.</p> </div> <div class="sec" data-magellan-destination="sec4-3" id="sec4-3"><h3 class="B"> Regional variability</h3> <p class="p"> The longitudinal nature of the three transects helps to reveal changes in settlement morphology, especially moving south to north (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig09">Figure 9</a>). Throughout the southern half of the survey area, architectural remains strongly favour upland locations and generally consist of mounded structures arranged orthogonally or in a continuous arc around a built-up or levelled patio. </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig09" id="fig09"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig9.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1583" height="1886" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig9.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 9.</span> Changes in settlement morphology from south to north. A) 18°57´0″N, 89°18´36″W, Transect 2, Central Hills; B) 19°1´48″N, 89°33´0″W, Transect 2, Central Hills; C) 19°10´48″N, 89°33´36″W, Transect 3, Central Hills; D) 19°32´24″N, 89°43´12″W, Transect 1, Chenes; E) 19°34´48″N, 89°42´36″W, Transect 1, Chenes (note high frequency of <em class="italic">chich</em> mounds); F) 20°0´0″N, 89°39´0″W, Transect 1, Puuc-Bolonchen Hills (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <p class="p"> The same landform-crowding phenomenon documented by Canuto and Auld-Thomas (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref6"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Canuto and Auld-Thomas</span>2021</a>) in Guatemala is apparent in the Alianza survey blocks, with urban Block 2 having a higher settlement rate on marginal landforms (42strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>) than in the more rural Block 1 (10strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>) or sparsely settled Block 3 (8strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup>). Agricultural infrastructure, in the form of field walls and terraces, is ubiquitous and occurs in close association with settlement. Wetland fields are notably absent from the Alianza survey data, although complexes of narrow drainage canals articulating with field walls are known from the adjacent Chactun region (Dunning <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref14"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dunning</span>2019</a>; Šprajc <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Šprajc</span>2021</a>).</p> <p class="p"> Both the morphology of settlement remains and their topographic patterning change gradually but markedly above the 19th parallel (Turner II <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref58"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Turner</span>1983</a>), beginning in the northern part of what Dunning and colleagues (<a class="xref bibr" href="#ref13"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dunning, Beach, Farrell and Luzzadder-Beach</span>1998</a>) call the Central Hills adaptive region. Terracing and field walls become less common, then all but disappear. Vernacular architecture changes as well: mounded residential patio groups are mostly replaced by large basal platforms greater than 200m<sup class="sup">2</sup> interspersed with less orthogonally arranged individual buildings. Both this architectural tradition and the absence of agricultural terracing are long-noted characteristics of settlement in the Puuc region and adjacent parts of the northern Maya Lowlands (Ringle <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref46"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata</span>2021</a>), although field walls are common further north (e.g. Hutson <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref30"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hutson</span>2016</a>). The strong correlation of upland landforms and archaeological settlement also progressively breaks down north of the 19th parallel and is largely inverted north of Hopelchen; in the northern reaches of Transect 1, most buildings are in valley bottoms and on spurs or foot slopes—long noted as a central characteristic of settlement in the Puuc region (Dunning & Kowalski <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref15"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Dunning and Kowalski</span>1994</a>).</p> <p class="p"> Given the generally synchronous changes in architectural practice, settlement morphology, agricultural engineering and landform preference, we suggest that the northern limits of the Central Hills region—around the towns of Xkanha, Kancabchen and Ucum—is a reasonable benchmark for the transition between a southern/central lowlands settlement tradition and that of the northern lowlands, with settlement in the southern Chenes region showing attributes of both.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sec conclusions" data-magellan-destination="sec5" id="sec5"><h2 class="A"> Conclusion</h2> <p class="p"> Twentieth-century researchers were indeed correct that interior Campeche is a substantially anthropogenic landscape (<em class="italic">sensu</em> Chase & Chase <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref9"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Chase and Chase</span>2016</a>). This and other recent analyses (Hernández Gómez <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref29"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Hernández Gómez</span>2021</a>; Šprajc <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Šprajc</span>2021</a>) make clear that this area was also, in places, an urbanised landscape where rural populations articulated and interacted with crowded cities (<a class="xref fig" href="#fig10">Figure 10</a>). </p><section><div class="fig fig" data-magellan-destination="fig10" id="fig10"><div class="figure-thumb"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig10.png?pub-status=live" class="aop-lazy-load-image" width="1583" height="1885" data-original-image="/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig10.png" data-zoomable="true"></div><div class="caption"><p class="p"> </p><p class="p"><span class="label">Figure 10.</span> Sites and settlement densities in the Alianza survey area (figure by authors).</p></div></div></section> <p class="p"> When the regional-scale settlement density values from a vast area of Campeche and western Quintana Roo—55.3strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup> reported here, 49strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup> in G-LiHT (Schroder <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref49"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Schroder</span>2020</a>), minimally 61strs/km<sup class="sup">2</sup> in the Chactun region (see Šprajc <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref51"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Šprajc</span>2021</a>)—are considered alongside the discovery of new urban areas such as Valeriana within pseudorandom survey blocks, we can only conclude that cities and dense settlement are simply ubiquitous across large swaths of the central Maya Lowlands. In this regard, the Alianza data are relevant because of the degree to which they do <em class="italic">not</em> reveal a new and substantially different perspective on Maya settlement density and urbanism when compared with other datasets. Rather, they offer an unambiguous rejoinder to the concern (voiced, for example, by Ringle <em class="italic">et al.</em> <a class="xref bibr" href="#ref46"><span class="show-for-sr">Reference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata</span>2021</a>) that archaeologically motivated lidar surveys have inflated estimates of regional settlement density. To the contrary, pseudorandom surveys—those combining expedient and random sampling—like this one, have established that anyone who is waiting for a sparsely settled Maya hinterland large enough to offset the high settlement densities documented by archaeological lidar surveys is running out of places to look.</p> <p class="p"> As archaeologists work to document and characterise ancient settlement systems throughout the tropics, local scale ‘dense pasts’ are proliferating. It is increasingly clear that dense palimpsests of human modification are not exceptional in these settings, despite long-standing biases that presumed them to be. The field of archaeology now confronts the twin tasks of understanding how these settlement palimpsests accrued through time, and of charting how they varied across space—the better to appreciate just how crowded tropical antiquity may have been.</p> </div> </div> <div class="back"> <div class="sec data-availability" data-magellan-destination="sec-das1" id="sec-das1"><h2 class="A"> Data availability statement</h2> <p class="p"> Point clouds (.laz), digital elevation models (.tif) and vector points representing our interpretation of archaeological buildings (.kmz) are available through Tulane University's Lab Archives platform with the permission of Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. They may also be downloaded from the <em class="italic">Ancient Maya Settlement</em> blog (ancientmayasettlement.com).</p> </div> <div class="ack"><h2 class="A"> Acknowledgements</h2> <p class="p"> The authors wish to thank Scott Hutson, Whittaker Schroder and two anonymous reviewers for providing detailed and helpful feedback that significantly improved this manuscript during its journey to publication.</p> </div> <div class="sec funding-statement" data-magellan-destination="sec-fs1" id="sec-fs1"><h2 class="A"> Funding statement</h2> <p class="p"> Support for this research was provided by Tulane University Middle American Research Institute through a grant for the MARI-GISLAB by the Hitz Foundation.</p> </div> </div> </div></div>   <hr aria-hidden="true" class="list-divider separator default" data-v-7036083a> <div id="references-list" class="circle-list"><h2>References</h2> <div id="ref1" aria-flowto="reference-1-content reference-1-button" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"><AppButton icon="up-circle" aria-label="Return to the reference 1 in the content" id="reference-1-button" class="circle-list__item__indicator__up"></AppButton></div> <div aria-hidden="true" data-test-hidden="true" class="circle-list__item__number"> </div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div id="reference-1-content" class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><span class="string-name"><span class="surname">Arnauld</span>, <span class="given-names">M.C.</span></span>, <span class="string-name"><span class="surname">Michelet</span>, <span class="given-names">D.</span></span> & <span class="string-name"><span class="surname">Nondédéo</span>, <span class="given-names">P.</span></span>. <span class="year">2013</span>. <span class="article-title">Living together in Río Bec houses: coresidence, rank, and alliance: noble farmers and weak kings in the Classic Maya Lowlands: the Río Bec Archaeological Project, 2002–2010</span>. <span class="source">Ancient Mesoamerica</span> <span class="volume">24</span>: <span class="fpage">469</span>–93. <span class="ext-link doi" href="#10.1017/S0956536114000029">https://doi.org/10.1017/S0956536114000029</span><a class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='CrossRef link for Living together in Río Bec houses: coresidence, rank, and alliance: noble farmers and weak kings in the Classic Maya Lowlands: the Río Bec Archaeological Project, 2002–2010' href=https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0956536114000029>CrossRef</a><a class='ref-link' target='_blank' aria-label='Google Scholar link for Living together in Río Bec houses: coresidence, rank, and alliance: noble farmers and weak kings in the Classic Maya Lowlands: the Río Bec Archaeological Project, 2002–2010' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Living+together+in+R%C3%ADo+Bec+houses%3A+coresidence%2C+rank%2C+and+alliance%3A+noble+farmers+and+weak+kings+in+the+Classic+Maya+Lowlands%3A+the+R%C3%ADo+Bec+Archaeological+Project%2C+2002%E2%80%932010&author=Arnauld+M.C.&author=Michelet+D.&author=Nond%C3%A9d%C3%A9o+P.&publication+year=2013&journal=Ancient+Mesoamerica&volume=24&doi=10.1017%2FS0956536114000029>Google Scholar</a></div></div></div><div id="ref2" aria-flowto="reference-2-content reference-2-button" class="circle-list__item"> <div class="circle-list__item__indicator"><AppButton icon="up-circle" aria-label="Return to the reference 2 in the content" id="reference-2-button" class="circle-list__item__indicator__up"></AppButton></div> <div aria-hidden="true" data-test-hidden="true" class="circle-list__item__number"> </div> <div class="circle-list__item__grouped"><div id="reference-2-content" class="circle-list__item__grouped__content"><span class="string-name"><span class="surname">Auld-Thomas</span>, <span class="given-names">L.</span></span> <span class="year">2022</span>. 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data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-15517-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig1.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-60281-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig1.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 1.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Alianza lidar survey areas in Campeche (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 1" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_tab1.png" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_tab1.png" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Table 1.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Settlement data in Alianza lidar in Campeche. Density is measured in structures per square kilometre.</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 2" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-78958-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig2.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-96042-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig2.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 2.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Left) Block 1 survey block, with building footprints in black and platform footprints in purple; top right) probable Río Bec-style complex marked by *; bottom right) sinkhole with associated quatrefoil ditch (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 3" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-96732-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig3.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-44315-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig3.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 3.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Block 2, showing the major site of Valeriana. Structure footprints in black, platform footprints in purple. Two mound groups adjacent to the highway were reported by Merk (2004) (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 4" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-93287-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig4.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-11021-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig4.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 4.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Detail of Valeriana site core, in the north-east corner of Block 2 (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 5" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-69277-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig5.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-30810-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig5.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 5.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Settlement and agricultural land modification in Block 2, visualisation for archaeological topography. Compare with figures in Šprajc <span class="italic">et al.</span>2021 (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 6" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-32603-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig6.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-98604-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig6.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 6.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Settlement in Block 3 (building footprints in black). Annular structures are associated with lime plaster production (Ringle <span class="italic">et al.</span>2021). Details A, B and C illustrate Northern Lowland settlement morphology, compare with Figure 7 (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 7" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-81805-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig7.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-46330-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig7.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 7.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Comparison of settlement density between six areas in central Campeche (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 8" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-96433-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig8.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-53084-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig8.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 8.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Close-ups of transects; A) Transect 1; B) southern tip of Transect 1; C) eastern end of Transect 2. All densities expressed as structures per square kilometre (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 9" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-63708-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig9.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-83400-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig9.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 9.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Changes in settlement morphology from south to north. A) 18°57´0″N, 89°18´36″W, Transect 2, Central Hills; B) 19°1´48″N, 89°33´0″W, Transect 2, Central Hills; C) 19°10´48″N, 89°33´36″W, Transect 3, Central Hills; D) 19°32´24″N, 89°43´12″W, Transect 1, Chenes; E) 19°34´48″N, 89°42´36″W, Transect 1, Chenes (note high frequency of <span class="italic">chich</span> mounds); F) 20°0´0″N, 89°39´0″W, Transect 1, Puuc-Bolonchen Hills (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> <hr aria-hidden="true" class="separator dashed" data-v-7036083a data-v-241a4b23></div><div data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item" data-v-241a4b23><div class="figures__item__image-box" data-v-241a4b23><button class="figures__ref" data-v-241a4b23> View in content </button> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" alt="Figure 10" data-zoomable="true" data-src="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-20022-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig10.jpg" data-enlarged-image="https://static.cambridge.org/binary/version/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-26586-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig10.jpg" class="graphic" data-v-241a4b23></div> <div data-v-241a4b23><div class="caption" data-v-241a4b23><p data-v-241a4b23><span class="label" data-v-241a4b23>Figure 10.</span> <span data-v-241a4b23><span class="p">Sites and settlement densities in the Alianza survey area (figure by authors).</span></span></p></div> </div></div> </div></div>         <div id="metrics-tab" publication-date="29 October 2024" class="metrics tab-pane" data-v-c41a0c86><div class="app-loader" data-v-c41a0c86></div></div></div></div> </div> <div role="complementary" aria-label="related contents" class="column__main__right" data-v-01274b1d><div class="access-block row access-status" data-v-5fad35b8 data-v-01274b1d><span class="has-access" data-v-5fad35b8><img 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href=\"mailto:lauldtho@tulane.edu\"\u003Elauldtho@tulane.edu\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",isAnonymous:b,fullName:"Luke Auld-Thomas",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Luke%20Auld-Thomas&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Forcid.org\u002F0000-0002-6590-4057"},{givenNames:"Marcello A.",surname:"Canuto",nameStyle:j,affiliations:[{text:s},{text:Y}],isCorresponding:b,notes:a,isAnonymous:b,fullName:"Marcello A. Canuto",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Marcello%20A.%20Canuto&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:d},{givenNames:"Adriana Velázquez",surname:"Morlet",nameStyle:j,affiliations:[{text:"Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH), Ciudad de México, México"}],isCorresponding:b,notes:a,isAnonymous:b,fullName:"Adriana Velázquez Morlet",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Adriana%20Vel%C3%A1zquez%20Morlet&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:d},{givenNames:"Francisco",surname:"Estrada-Belli",nameStyle:j,affiliations:[{text:Y}],isCorresponding:b,notes:a,isAnonymous:b,fullName:"Francisco Estrada-Belli",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Francisco%20Estrada-Belli&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:d},{givenNames:"David",surname:"Chatelain",nameStyle:j,affiliations:[{text:s}],isCorresponding:b,notes:a,isAnonymous:b,fullName:"David Chatelain",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=David%20Chatelain&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:d},{givenNames:"Diego",surname:"Matadamas",nameStyle:j,affiliations:[{text:s}],isCorresponding:b,notes:a,isAnonymous:b,fullName:"Diego Matadamas",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Diego%20Matadamas&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:d},{givenNames:"Michelle",surname:"Pigott",nameStyle:j,affiliations:[{text:s}],isCorresponding:b,notes:a,isAnonymous:b,fullName:"Michelle Pigott",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Michelle%20Pigott&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:d},{givenNames:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Fernández Díaz",nameStyle:j,affiliations:[{text:"National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping (NCALM), University of Houston, USA"}],isCorresponding:b,notes:a,isAnonymous:b,fullName:"Juan Carlos Fernández Díaz",searchUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=Juan%20Carlos%20Fern%C3%A1ndez%20D%C3%ADaz&eventCode=SE-AU",orcidUrl:d}]},translators:{contributors:[],label:"Translated by"}},collections:[],publishedDate:"29 October 2024",keywords:[{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=Central America",name:"Central America"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=Maya Lowlands",name:"Maya Lowlands"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=remote sensing",name:"remote sensing"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=lidar",name:"lidar"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=low-density urbanism",name:"low-density urbanism"},{url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fsearch?filters[keywords]=settlement patterns",name:"settlement patterns"}],openPracticeBadges:[],doi:{url:"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.15184\u002Faqy.2024.148",value:"10.15184\u002Faqy.2024.148"},copyright:{statement:["Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd"],holder:["The Author(s)"],year:[2024]},creativeCommons:{descriptions:["This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F4.0\u002F\" target=\"_blank\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F4.0\u002F\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited."],oaLicenseType:"CC-BY",licenses:["CC","BY"]},acceptedManuscript:b,type:"research-article",pageRange:{range:"1340 - 1358",firstPage:"1340",lastPage:"1358"},typeDescription:"Research Article",commentsCount:Z,topicsAndSubtopics:d},journal:{id:_,title:k,titleSlug:$,mnemonic:"AQY",titleHistory:[],isFirstView:b,journalSlug:$,isCompanion:b,parentCompanionJournalName:k,associatedParentCollection:d,paymentInfo:{prices:{"£":{price:16,sku:v,skuNew:t,currency:"£"},"€":{price:19,sku:v,skuNew:t,currency:"€"},US$:{price:26,sku:v,skuNew:t,currency:"US$"},AU$:{price:31,sku:v,skuNew:t,currency:"AU$"}}},url:aa,firstViewUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fantiquity\u002Ffirstview",coverUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fcovers\u002FAQY_0_0_0\u002Fantiquity.jpg",submitMaterialsUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fantiquity\u002Finformation\u002Fauthor-instructions\u002Fsubmitting-your-materials",hasHistory:b,latestTitle:k,latestId:_,hasPastTitle:b,issue:{id:"4F08B4B75649C1ECF3B143360ADCD9F1",number:"401",title:"Issue 401",publishedDate:ab,printPublishTimestamp:ac,url:ad},volume:{id:"87C69FC9A297320915DFC82CFAE65D83",number:"98",title:"Volume 98",publishedDate:ab,printPublishTimestamp:ac,url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fantiquity\u002Fvolume\u002F87C69FC9A297320915DFC82CFAE65D83"}},abstract:{graphicalAbstract:{title:"Abstract",graphicalContent:"\u003Cdiv class=\"abstract\" data-abstract-type=\"graphical\"\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cimg class=\"graphic\" orientation mimesubtype=\"png\" mimetype=\"image\" position type href=\"S0003598X24001480_figAb.png\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fcontent\u002Fid\u002Furn%3Acambridge.org%3Aid%3Aarticle%3AS0003598X24001480\u002Fresource\u002Fname\u002FS0003598X24001480_figAb.png?pub-status=live\" \u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",textContent:"\u003Cdiv class=\"abstract\" data-abstract-type=\"normal\"\u003E\u003Cp\u003EAs airborne lidar surveys reveal a growing sample of urbanised tropical landscapes, questions linger about the sampling bias of such research leading to inflated estimates of urban extent and population magnitude. ‘Found’ datasets from remote sensing conducted for non-archaeological purposes and thus not subject to archaeological site bias, provide an opportunity to address these concerns through pseudorandom sampling. Here, the authors present their analysis of an environmental lidar dataset from Campeche, Mexico, which reveals previously unrecorded urbanism and dense regional-scale settlement. Both characteristics, the authors argue, are therefore demonstrably ubiquitous across the central Maya Lowlands.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E"}},content:{html:"\u003Cdiv class=\"article research-article NLM\"\u003E\n\n\u003Cdiv class=\"body\"\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_figU1.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"768\" height=\"768\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_figU1.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec intro\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec1\" id=\"sec1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Archaeologists increasingly recognise that the global tropics and sub-tropics were home to a rich variety of urban settlement traditions in antiquity. While many of these settlement systems shared a tendency toward spatial dispersion—what is frequently called ‘low-density urbanism’ (Fletcher \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref21\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Fletcher\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1995\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref22\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Fletcher\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref23\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Fletcher and Smith\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2012\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)—there is a burgeoning recognition that the ancient world's low-density urban landscapes were themselves heterogeneous, with substantial gradients in settlement density within settlements, between settlements and their hinterlands, and across subregions (Chase \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Chase\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Evans \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref17\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Evans\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Fisher \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref20\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Fisher, Cohen, Fernández-Diaz and Leisz\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Canuto \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Jackmond \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref33\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Jackmond, Fonoti and Tautunu\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Prümers \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref43\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Prümers, Betancourt, Iriarte, Robinson and Schaich\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2022\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Thompson \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref56\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Thompson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2023\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Rostain \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref47\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Rostain\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2024\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Concurrently, archaeologists in many of these same regions are confronting ‘dense pasts’ (see Evans \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref18\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Evans, Aldred and Cooper\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2023\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), where the accumulation of research has simply turned up more of everything than the discipline contemplated previously: more settlements, more cities, more landesque capital.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E In recent years these two developments in the archaeology of tropical urbanism—the recognition of high-amplitude variability on the one hand, and of a dense past on the other—have come into tension with one another, such that where some researchers see evidence for dense regional-scale populations inhabiting thoroughly urbanised landscapes, others see evidence of a biased sample that over-represents one end of the settlement density gradient. It thus remains an open question whether those areas as yet unmapped by archaeologists hold further evidence of a dense past or reveal a less densely occupied corrective.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Here we seek to answer this question for the central Maya Lowlands (see Canuto \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E: fig. 1), one of the ancient world's best-known, but also most contentious, examples of tropical urbanism. Our aim in this article is to assess whether overall settlement density and local-scale variability in settlement density (i.e. urbanisation) have been over-estimated by archaeologically motivated, ‘site focused’ surveys. To do this we enlist a new expedient and pseudorandom regional-scale sample of settlement drawn from remote sensing data across one of the Maya Lowlands’ largest ‘blank spots’: eastern Campeche, Mexico.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Since at least the 1940s, researchers have known that the Classic period Maya (AD 250–900) transformed the rugged interior of the Mexican state of Campeche into a densely settled and extensively engineered landscape (Merwin \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref39\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Merwin\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1913\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Ruppert & Denison \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref48\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ruppert and Denison\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1943\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). A series of projects undertaken near the modern town of Xpuhil since the 1970s demonstrate that this region was both crowded with settlement and heavily engineered through durable landscape modifications such as terraces and field walls (Eaton \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref16\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Eaton\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1975\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Turner II \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref57\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Turner, Harrison and Turner\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1978\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Thomas \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref54\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Thomas\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1981\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Suárez Aguilar \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref53\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Suárez Aguilar\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2007\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Arnauld \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref1\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Arnauld, Michelet and Nondédéo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Lemonnier & Vannière \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref36\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lemonnier and Vannière\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Nevertheless, for most of the twentieth century, archaeological research in east-central Campeche and adjacent Quintana Roo was scant compared to other parts of the Maya Lowlands, such that the authoritative database of known and geolocated sites (Witschey & Brown \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref62\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Witschey, Brown and Braswell\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) shows large swaths of the region to be essentially \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eterra incognita\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E In the past decade a growing number of field research projects in Campeche have employed airborne lidar survey (e.g. Reese-Taylor \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref44\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Reese-Taylor\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Hernández Gómez \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref29\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hernández Gómez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Šprajc \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Šprajc\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which has emerged as a powerful tool for settlement archaeology, capable of documenting entire landscapes in minute detail even under dense forest cover (e.g. Chase \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref10\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Chase\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2011\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Canuto \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Separately, researchers have also examined lidar datasets collected for non-archaeological purposes, notably those for ecological monitoring (Schroder \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref49\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Schroder\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Hutson \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref31\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hutson, Dunning, Cook, Ruhl, Barth and Conley\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and civil engineering (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref32\"\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Pérez Rivas \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref40\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Pérez Rivas, Corral, Uitz and Morlet\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2023\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Collectively referred to as environmental lidar, these expedient datasets have the advantage of being effectively random with regards to the archaeological record; as the data were collected without regard for archaeological questions they are unlikely to contain the same biases as archaeologically motivated surveys. In the Maya Lowlands and elsewhere (Golden \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref27\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Golden\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; García Sánchez \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref25\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference García Sánchez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Schroder \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref49\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Schroder\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Kokalj & Mast \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref35\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Kokalj and Mast\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Peripato \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref41\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Peripato\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2023\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Stauffer \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref52\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Stauffer, Grooms, Hu, Mersmann, Kidder and Henry\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2023\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), archaeological re-analysis of these environmental lidar datasets represents a promising new development in regional sampling methodology (Plog & Flannery \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref42\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Plog, Flannery and Flannery\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1976\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; see also Banning \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref3\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Banning\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) with an attractive combination of high spatial resolution, broad spatial coverage, limited archaeological bias and low (or no) cost. In Mexico, some environmental lidar datasets have been made freely available to the public—notably the transects from NASA's G-LiHT mission (Goddard's Lidar, Hyperspectral and Thermal Imager mission) (Cook \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref11\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Cook\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)—in addition to the government's own high-resolution lidar data, fostering collaboration among researchers as well as open science, more generally.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Here, we present an archaeological analysis of approximately 122km\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E of high-quality airborne lidar data collected in 2013 as part of a forest monitoring project called Alianza M-REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation in Mexico), spearheaded by the Nature Conservancy, Mexico. This dataset—hereafter ‘Alianza’—uniquely comprises both transect and areal (quadrat or block) survey samples, permitting a pseudorandom sample of settlement patterns in Campeche that is both longitudinal and contextual (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig01\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig01\" id=\"fig01\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig1.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1583\" height=\"1853\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig1.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Alianza lidar survey areas in Campeche (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E In this article, we introduce the dataset and provide an overview of the archaeological landscape that it reveals. We argue that the Alianza data demonstrate a range of ancient settlement densities comparable to those documented by site-focused archaeological survey in the region, from nearly vacant rural landscapes to dense urban areas. Despite this survey's lack of archaeological “site bias” (c.f. Ringle \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref46\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E: 46–47), we conclude that the Alianza datasets support the notion of a populous and urban ancient Maya landscape consistent with other datasets (Canuto \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Schroder \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref49\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Schroder\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Canuto & Auld-Thomas \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref6\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto and Auld-Thomas\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto, Auld-Thomas, Chase, Chase and Chase\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2024\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In other words, we suggest that dense regional-scale settlement and high-amplitude variability in local-scale settlement density (reflective of urbanisation) are characteristic of the central Maya Lowlands and not the product of sampling bias (contra Webster \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref61\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Webster\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). More detailed quantitative analysis of the archaeological features within this and other pseudorandom datasets will be published elsewhere in the future.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec2\" id=\"sec2\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E The dataset\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The lidar data were collected in 2013 by the Mexican firm CartoData using a Riegl LMS-Q780 sensor, processed by the Woods Hole Research Center (WHRC) and made freely available by Alianza M-REDD+ (Walker \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref60\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Walker\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2015\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The dataset consists of three transects and three survey blocks (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig01\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The transects are roughly 275m wide and approximately 213km long, for a total coverage area of 58.3km\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E. The survey blocks total 64.1km\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E (\u003Ca class=\"xref table\" href=\"#tab01\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and were conducted in three areas: 1) south of the town of Xpuhil, near the well-known site of Río Bec; 2) adjacent to the villages of Dos Lagunas and Bel Ha where several patio groups have been reported along the highway (Merk \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref38\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Merk\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E); and 3) near the town of Ucum in northernmost Campeche, an area with no reported sites. A fourth survey block, measuring about 174km\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, falls in the Puuc-Bolonchen hills of the state of Yucatan (see Ringle \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref46\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and is not considered further here.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" data-magellan-destination=\"tab01\" id=\"tab01\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Settlement data in Alianza lidar in Campeche. Density is measured in structures per square kilometre.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cspan\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_tab1.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"765\" height=\"215\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_tab1.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\n\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec3\" id=\"sec3\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Analytical methods\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E In the original Alianza digital terrain models, larger archaeological mounds were vertically ‘truncated’, indicating that a subset of real ground points in the lidar point cloud had not been classified as such. We reprocessed the original point clouds using parameters developed at the National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping (NCALM) specifically for archaeological prospection (Fernandez-Diaz \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref19\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Fernandez-Diaz, Carter, Shrestha and Glennie\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2014\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), producing a digital terrain model with a spatial resolution of 1m per pixel (ground-point density: 5.01points\u002Fm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E). This dramatically improved the representation of ancient architecture, though the overall visibility of archaeological features across the dataset was only slightly improved. Digital terrain models were visualised primarily using Simple Red Relief (Auld-Thomas \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref2\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Auld-Thomas\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2022\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which highlights slopes in red and local elevation differences in a gradient of dark blue-green to bright yellow (e.g. \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig04\"\u003EFigures 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E & \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig07\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and the Visualization for Archaeological Topography (Verbovšek \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref59\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Verbovšek, Popit and Kokalj\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which blends a traditional computational hillshade with additional terrain parameters to enhance subtle topographic details. All features of archaeological interest were manually digitised as vector polygons in QGIS and ArcGIS Pro. Digitized features were reviewed by at least three analysts working independently; where analysts disagreed, features were reevaluated by all parties and then included or excluded from the final dataset by majority vote.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E To our knowledge, archaeological fieldwork has been conducted only in the Puuc block and not any of the other areas intersected by the survey; and no field validation of the analysis presented here has yet taken place. This means that our analysis carries three caveats. First, over the decade since lidar was first deployed in the service of Mesoamerican archaeology, in no instance has field validation resulted in a net decrease in the total number of buildings identified (e.g. Reese-Taylor \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref44\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Reese-Taylor\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Canuto & Auld-Thomas \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref5\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto, Auld-Thomas, Barrientos Q, Canuto and López\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Thompson \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref55\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Thompson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Garrison \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref26\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Garrison, Thompson, Krause, Eshleman, Fernandez-Diaz, Baldwin and Cambranes\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2022\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), because false positives are reliably offset by a greater number of false negatives—small, unmounded or barely mounded buildings that are seldom detectable in digital terrain models. Nor in that time has field validation of lidar-derived settlement data resulted in a meaningful alteration to the observed spatial distribution of (mounded, surface-visible) settlement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The second caveat concerns the long-recognised prevalence of rockpiles (or ‘chich’ mounds) throughout the Alianza coverage area. Although their exact use is unknown (Turner II \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref58\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Turner\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1983\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Dunning \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref12\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dunning\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1992\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Kepecs & Boucher \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref34\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Kepecs, Boucher and Fedick\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1996\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Lemonnier & Vannière \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref36\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lemonnier and Vannière\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Hutson \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref31\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hutson, Dunning, Cook, Ruhl, Barth and Conley\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), most of these rockpiles do not appear to have fulfilled a residential function. Even so, their general shape (as depicted in lidar data) is similar to that of small house-mounds. Despite efforts to mitigate the impact of this ambiguity during our digitisation process, our identification efforts likely mistook some rockpiles for structures, leading to marginally inflated structure tallies overall.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The net result of these first two caveats is that all feature counts and related analyses of density presented here should be regarded as preliminary values that will inevitably be revised through subsequent analyses, both in the field and the computer lab. Overall feature counts will almost certainly increase, but the proportion of features classified as buildings or some other anthropogenic feature, such as rockpiles, is also likely to change. We maintain, however, that the general characteristics and spatial patterning of settlement can be reliably described from our initial remote analysis.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The final caveat concerns chronology and contemporaneity. In the central lowlands, archaeologists have long recognised a “tremendous Late Classic bias” (Rice & Puleston \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref45\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Rice, Puleston and Ashmore\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1981\u003C\u002Fa\u003E: 137) in buildings visible on the surface; nearly every archaeological project in the region has reported that between 75 and 95 per cent of excavated buildings have Late Classic components (e.g. Canuto & Auld-Thomas \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto, Auld-Thomas, Chase, Chase and Chase\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2024\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Similar chronological summaries are not available for the northern lowlands, although the chronological picture there is generally regarded as more complex and there is far more Terminal Classic and Postclassic occupation compared with the central lowlands. The lack of chronological control in the area sampled by the Alianza survey means that the northern and southern portions of the dataset should not be considered synchronic, though elements of each surely overlap in time.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec4\" id=\"sec4\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Settlement patterns\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec4-1\" id=\"sec4-1\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E General observations\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Block 1, located just south and east of the important site of Río Bec, includes one probable example of the distinctive paired pseudopyramid architectural style that takes its name from that site (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig02\"\u003EFigure 2a\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The character of settlement, including the ubiquity of agricultural infrastructure, is identical to that recorded by pedestrian survey at Río Bec: a sprawling ‘dense rural’ agro-settlement landscape with little of the imposing public architecture so common elsewhere in the Maya region (Arnauld \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref1\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Arnauld, Michelet and Nondédéo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Lemonnier & Vannière \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref36\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Lemonnier and Vannière\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). One notable exception, however, is an architectural complex adjacent to a deep sinkhole giving access to a partially collapsed cave system. The architectural complex is encircled by a narrow ditch, the small scale of which, together with the lack of an associated embankment, precludes a defensive interpretation (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig02\"\u003EFigure 2b\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The ditch is in the shape of a quatrefoil, canonically the shape used to represent caves and sinkholes in Mesoamerican art (Guernsey \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref28\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Guernsey\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2010\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). This unusual pairing of prominent sinkhole and quatrefoil ditch warrants future investigation.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig02\" id=\"fig02\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig2.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1583\" height=\"1154\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig2.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Left) Block 1 survey block, with building footprints in black and platform footprints in purple; top right) probable Río Bec-style complex marked by *; bottom right) sinkhole with associated quatrefoil ditch (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Block 2 directly overlies the epicentre of a major urban area that was previously unknown to the scientific community. This city, which we call Valeriana (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig03\"\u003EFigures 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig04\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E & \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig05\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) after an adjacent freshwater lagoon, encompasses two major hubs of monumental architecture 2km apart, linked by continuous dense settlement and landscape engineering. The discovery of Valeriana highlights the fact that there are still major gaps in our knowledge of the existence or absence of large sites within as-yet unmapped areas of the Maya Lowlands. Settlement and agricultural infrastructure completely fill the 16.6km\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E survey area. The style and density of architecture closely matches that seen in the Chactun-Tamchen area, some 20km to the south-west (Šprajc \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Šprajc\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), as well as that recently recorded by archaeological salvage work on the Maya Train project (Pérez Rivas, \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Epers. comm.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig03\" id=\"fig03\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig3.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1583\" height=\"1157\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig3.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Block 2, showing the major site of Valeriana. Structure footprints in black, platform footprints in purple. Two mound groups adjacent to the highway were reported by Merk (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref38\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Merk\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig04\" id=\"fig04\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig4.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1583\" height=\"1154\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig4.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Detail of Valeriana site core, in the north-east corner of Block 2 (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig05\" id=\"fig05\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig5.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"768\" height=\"2168\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig5.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Settlement and agricultural land modification in Block 2, visualisation for archaeological topography. Compare with figures in Šprajc \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Šprajc\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The larger of Valeriana's two monumental precincts has all the hallmarks of a Classic Maya political capital: multiple enclosed plazas connected by a broad causeway; temple pyramids; a ballcourt; a reservoir formed by damming an arroyo (a seasonal watercourse); and a probable E-Group assemblage, an architectural arrangement that generally indicates a founding date prior to AD 150 (Freidel \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref24\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Freidel, Chase, Dowd and Murdock\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2017\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Furthermore, the same style of curved, ‘amphitheatre’ residential patios first identified by Ruppert and Denison (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref48\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ruppert and Denison\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1943\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) at the site of Pechal and reported in the northern sector of Šprajc and colleagues’ (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Šprajc\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) lidar survey are also present at Valeriana, making this a strongly characteristic regional style. Valeriana's architectural epicentre occupies the north-eastern extreme of Block 2, indicating that the settled area associated with it continues beyond the margins of the Alianza dataset. It likely continues at least 5km north, where Transect 2 records identical density and style of buildings and agricultural infrastructure (see below).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Block 3, by contrast, has sparse and modest settlement (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig06\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), consisting of scattered or loosely clustered residences with no monumental architecture and limited investment in water storage. Notably, the settlement here does include so-called ‘annular structures’, ring-shaped structures that are common in the Puuc region and were used in the production of lime plaster (Seligson \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref50\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Seligson, Ruiz and Pingarrón\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig06\" id=\"fig06\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig6.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1583\" height=\"1151\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig6.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Settlement in Block 3 (building footprints in black). Annular structures are associated with lime plaster production (Ringle \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref46\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Details A, B and C illustrate Northern Lowland settlement morphology, compare with \u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig07\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec4-2\" id=\"sec4-2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Settlement density\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E With a total of 6764 structures (strs) in the entire dataset, the aggregate settlement density is 55.3strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E, comparable to the 49strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E recently reported by Schroder and colleagues (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref41\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Peripato\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) for a portion of the G-LiHT transects in the same region. These figures are relevant to assessments of regional-scale settlement density and population history—for instance, they exceed regional-scale settlement density reported for any part of Belize or Guatemala (Canuto & Auld-Thomas \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref7\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto, Auld-Thomas, Chase, Chase and Chase\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2024\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). However, they explain little about the degree to which a settlement system was urbanised, which requires an appreciation of local-scale variability or density gradients. To accommodate the distinct spatial qualities of quadrat and transect data, we assess density gradients separately for the Alianza blocks and transects.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E To calculate settlement density gradients in the survey blocks, we used a kernel density estimation, fitting a quartic kernel with a 565m bandwidth over each structure point with an output cell size of 5m. We did the same for the only pedestrian surveys conducted at comparable scale and completeness in the same region, namely at Calakmul (May Hau \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref37\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hau, R, Muñoz, Gonzalez Heredia and Folan\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1990\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), Oxpemul (Barnes \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref4\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Barnes\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2009\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and Becan (Thomas \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref54\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Thomas\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1981\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Comparing these ‘site-centred’ block surveys with ‘random’ block surveys illustrates that the latter fit comfortably within the range of densities suggested by the former (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig07\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Block 1 (range: 0–195strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) falls between densities recorded at Oxpemul (range: 0–149strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) and Becan (range: 0–264strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E), while Block 2 (range: 0–426strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) displays a density gradient only surpassed by the behemoth site of Calakmul (range: 0–770strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E). Notably, the placement of Block 2 vis-à-vis Valeriana's dense epicentre creates an edge effect precisely in the area where settlement density is greatest; that city's urban core is undoubtedly both larger and denser than our kernel density estimation suggests. Block 3 (range: 0–84strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) shows the lowest, most ‘rural’, settlement distribution of all six survey blocks; block-level density here is comparable to that reported for rural areas such as the Corona-Achiotal region in northern Guatemala (Canuto & Auld-Thomas \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref6\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto and Auld-Thomas\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), though it is also more evenly distributed. In sum, Alianza's three pseudorandom survey blocks recorded: 1) a low-density rural area; 2) a moderately dense periurban or ‘dense rural’ area; and 3) a large, dense city—precisely the range of variability suggested by ‘site-centred’ pedestrian and lidar surveys.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig07\" id=\"fig07\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig7.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1594\" height=\"1332\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig7.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Comparison of settlement density between six areas in central Campeche (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Due to the narrowness of the transects (between 200m and 300m), we devised a binning\u002Fsegmentation procedure to assess variability in settlement density. Schroder and colleagues (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref41\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Peripato\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) used a similar strategy in their analysis of the G-LiHT data, dividing the transects into roughly 2km\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E segments (approximately 8km in length). We reasoned that bins of that length would be unlikely to capture significant short-scale variation in settlement density, since even the largest Maya cities’ epicentres seldom exceed 4km in any linear dimension and are often bounded by vacant wetlands and sparsely occupied rugged terrain (Canuto \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref8\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2018\u003C\u002Fa\u003E); the effect of segments this long is to reduce a city's analytical visibility. Consequently, we employ a segment size of 25ha (approximately 1km in length). These reveal greater variability in settlement density, allowing us to identify areas of nucleation (potential loci of ‘urbanising processes’) as well as areas with little or no settlement (‘hinterlands’).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Dense settlement is most broadly sustained at the eastern end of Transect 2, only 5km to the north of Block 2 and the site of Valeriana, suggesting that the region encompassing Block 2 and the eastern end of Transect 2 is part of an extended high-density settlement system (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig08\"\u003EFigure 8C\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), like the one recorded by Špracj and colleagues (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Šprajc\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) around Chactun—indeed, the Alianza and Chactun survey areas are close enough that they may simply capture parts of a single sprawling conurbation.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig08\" id=\"fig08\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig8.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1583\" height=\"1898\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig8.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Close-ups of transects; A) Transect 1; B) southern tip of Transect 1; C) eastern end of Transect 2. All densities expressed as structures per square kilometre (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E There are other areas where density appears to spike to levels typical of ‘urban’ landscapes. Two are found along Transect 1, at points near the known centres of Dzibilnocac and (somewhat farther north) Santa Rosa Xtampak (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig08\"\u003EFigure 8A\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). A third localised spike in density corresponds to a previously unreported monumental complex at the extreme southern terminus of Transect 1 (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig08\"\u003EFigure 8B\u003C\u002Fa\u003E); because this complex occupies the southern end of the transect, it is impossible to say how large it may be or how urban the settlement associated with it was. Transect 3 records the lowest density of all three transects; nowhere does it intersect densities typical of urban areas, and its eastern leg has the longest stretch of low-density segments (range: 0–0.84strs\u002Fha or 0–84strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) in the entire dataset, matching the low-density Block 3 and suggesting the existence of a large and sparse settlement zone in north-easternmost Campeche.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec4-3\" id=\"sec4-3\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"B\"\u003E Regional variability\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The longitudinal nature of the three transects helps to reveal changes in settlement morphology, especially moving south to north (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig09\"\u003EFigure 9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Throughout the southern half of the survey area, architectural remains strongly favour upland locations and generally consist of mounded structures arranged orthogonally or in a continuous arc around a built-up or levelled patio.\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig09\" id=\"fig09\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig9.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1583\" height=\"1886\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig9.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Changes in settlement morphology from south to north. A) 18°57´0″N, 89°18´36″W, Transect 2, Central Hills; B) 19°1´48″N, 89°33´0″W, Transect 2, Central Hills; C) 19°10´48″N, 89°33´36″W, Transect 3, Central Hills; D) 19°32´24″N, 89°43´12″W, Transect 1, Chenes; E) 19°34´48″N, 89°42´36″W, Transect 1, Chenes (note high frequency of \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Echich\u003C\u002Fem\u003E mounds); F) 20°0´0″N, 89°39´0″W, Transect 1, Puuc-Bolonchen Hills (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The same landform-crowding phenomenon documented by Canuto and Auld-Thomas (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref6\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Canuto and Auld-Thomas\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) in Guatemala is apparent in the Alianza survey blocks, with urban Block 2 having a higher settlement rate on marginal landforms (42strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) than in the more rural Block 1 (10strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) or sparsely settled Block 3 (8strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E). Agricultural infrastructure, in the form of field walls and terraces, is ubiquitous and occurs in close association with settlement. Wetland fields are notably absent from the Alianza survey data, although complexes of narrow drainage canals articulating with field walls are known from the adjacent Chactun region (Dunning \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref14\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dunning\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2019\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Šprajc \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Šprajc\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Both the morphology of settlement remains and their topographic patterning change gradually but markedly above the 19th parallel (Turner II \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref58\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Turner\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1983\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), beginning in the northern part of what Dunning and colleagues (\u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref13\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dunning, Beach, Farrell and Luzzadder-Beach\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1998\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) call the Central Hills adaptive region. Terracing and field walls become less common, then all but disappear. Vernacular architecture changes as well: mounded residential patio groups are mostly replaced by large basal platforms greater than 200m\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E interspersed with less orthogonally arranged individual buildings. Both this architectural tradition and the absence of agricultural terracing are long-noted characteristics of settlement in the Puuc region and adjacent parts of the northern Maya Lowlands (Ringle \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref46\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), although field walls are common further north (e.g. Hutson \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref30\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hutson\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). The strong correlation of upland landforms and archaeological settlement also progressively breaks down north of the 19th parallel and is largely inverted north of Hopelchen; in the northern reaches of Transect 1, most buildings are in valley bottoms and on spurs or foot slopes—long noted as a central characteristic of settlement in the Puuc region (Dunning & Kowalski \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref15\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Dunning and Kowalski\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E1994\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Given the generally synchronous changes in architectural practice, settlement morphology, agricultural engineering and landform preference, we suggest that the northern limits of the Central Hills region—around the towns of Xkanha, Kancabchen and Ucum—is a reasonable benchmark for the transition between a southern\u002Fcentral lowlands settlement tradition and that of the northern lowlands, with settlement in the southern Chenes region showing attributes of both.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec conclusions\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec5\" id=\"sec5\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Twentieth-century researchers were indeed correct that interior Campeche is a substantially anthropogenic landscape (\u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Esensu\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Chase & Chase \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref9\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Chase and Chase\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2016\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). This and other recent analyses (Hernández Gómez \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref29\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Hernández Gómez\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; Šprajc \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Šprajc\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) make clear that this area was also, in places, an urbanised landscape where rural populations articulated and interacted with crowded cities (\u003Ca class=\"xref fig\" href=\"#fig10\"\u003EFigure 10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\n\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Csection\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"fig fig\" data-magellan-destination=\"fig10\" id=\"fig10\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"figure-thumb\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"data:image\u002Fgif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAMLCwgAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==\" data-src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig10.png?pub-status=live\" class=\"aop-lazy-load-image\" width=\"1583\" height=\"1885\" data-original-image=\"\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_fig10.png\" data-zoomable=\"true\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"label\"\u003EFigure 10.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E Sites and settlement densities in the Alianza survey area (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fsection\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E When the regional-scale settlement density values from a vast area of Campeche and western Quintana Roo—55.3strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E reported here, 49strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E in G-LiHT (Schroder \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref49\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Schroder\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2020\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), minimally 61strs\u002Fkm\u003Csup class=\"sup\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E in the Chactun region (see Šprajc \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref51\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Šprajc\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)—are considered alongside the discovery of new urban areas such as Valeriana within pseudorandom survey blocks, we can only conclude that cities and dense settlement are simply ubiquitous across large swaths of the central Maya Lowlands. In this regard, the Alianza data are relevant because of the degree to which they do \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Enot\u003C\u002Fem\u003E reveal a new and substantially different perspective on Maya settlement density and urbanism when compared with other datasets. Rather, they offer an unambiguous rejoinder to the concern (voiced, for example, by Ringle \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Ca class=\"xref bibr\" href=\"#ref46\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"show-for-sr\"\u003EReference Ringle, Negrón, Ciau, Seligson, Fernandez-Diaz and Ortegón Zapata\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) that archaeologically motivated lidar surveys have inflated estimates of regional settlement density. To the contrary, pseudorandom surveys—those combining expedient and random sampling—like this one, have established that anyone who is waiting for a sparsely settled Maya hinterland large enough to offset the high settlement densities documented by archaeological lidar surveys is running out of places to look.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E As archaeologists work to document and characterise ancient settlement systems throughout the tropics, local scale ‘dense pasts’ are proliferating. It is increasingly clear that dense palimpsests of human modification are not exceptional in these settings, despite long-standing biases that presumed them to be. The field of archaeology now confronts the twin tasks of understanding how these settlement palimpsests accrued through time, and of charting how they varied across space—the better to appreciate just how crowded tropical antiquity may have been.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"back\"\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec data-availability\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec-das1\" id=\"sec-das1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Data availability statement\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Point clouds (.laz), digital elevation models (.tif) and vector points representing our interpretation of archaeological buildings (.kmz) are available through Tulane University's Lab Archives platform with the permission of Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. They may also be downloaded from the \u003Cem class=\"italic\"\u003EAncient Maya Settlement\u003C\u002Fem\u003E blog (ancientmayasettlement.com).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"ack\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Acknowledgements\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E The authors wish to thank Scott Hutson, Whittaker Schroder and two anonymous reviewers for providing detailed and helpful feedback that significantly improved this manuscript during its journey to publication.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"sec funding-statement\" data-magellan-destination=\"sec-fs1\" id=\"sec-fs1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"A\"\u003E Funding statement\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp class=\"p\"\u003E Support for this research was provided by Tulane University Middle American Research Institute through a grant for the MARI-GISLAB by the Hitz Foundation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",tableOfContent:[{level:l,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EIntroduction\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec1"},{level:l,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EThe dataset\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec2"},{level:l,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EAnalytical methods\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec3"},{level:l,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003ESettlement patterns\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec4"},{level:l,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EConclusion\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec5"},{level:l,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EData availability statement\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec-das1"},{level:l,current:b,title:"\u003Cdiv class=\"toc-title\"\u003EFunding statement\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E",url:"sec-fs1"}],footnotes:[],fulltextNotes:[],references:[{id:"ref1",displayNumber:a,existInContent:c,content:"\u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EArnauld\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EM.C.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003EMichelet\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003ED.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E & \u003Cspan class=\"string-name\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"surname\"\u003ENondédéo\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\"given-names\"\u003EP.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\"year\"\u003E2013\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\"article-title\"\u003ELiving together in Río Bec houses: coresidence, rank, and alliance: noble farmers and weak kings in the Classic Maya Lowlands: the Río Bec Archaeological Project, 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Density is measured in structures per square kilometre.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:ca,enlargedSrc:ca,attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig02",label:"Figure 2.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003ELeft) Block 1 survey block, with building footprints in black and platform footprints in purple; top right) probable Río Bec-style complex marked by *; bottom right) sinkhole with associated quatrefoil ditch (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-78958-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig2.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-96042-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig2.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig03",label:"Figure 3.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EBlock 2, showing the major site of Valeriana. Structure footprints in black, platform footprints in purple. Two mound groups adjacent to the highway were reported by Merk (2004) (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-96732-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig3.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-44315-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig3.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig04",label:"Figure 4.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EDetail of Valeriana site core, in the north-east corner of Block 2 (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-93287-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig4.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-11021-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig4.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig05",label:"Figure 5.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003ESettlement and agricultural land modification in Block 2, visualisation for archaeological topography. Compare with figures in Šprajc \u003Cspan class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021 (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-69277-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig5.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-30810-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig5.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig06",label:"Figure 6.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003ESettlement in Block 3 (building footprints in black). Annular structures are associated with lime plaster production (Ringle \u003Cspan class=\"italic\"\u003Eet al.\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E2021). Details A, B and C illustrate Northern Lowland settlement morphology, compare with Figure 7 (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-32603-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig6.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-98604-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig6.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig07",label:"Figure 7.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EComparison of settlement density between six areas in central Campeche (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-81805-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig7.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-46330-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig7.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig08",label:"Figure 8.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EClose-ups of transects; A) Transect 1; B) southern tip of Transect 1; C) eastern end of Transect 2. All densities expressed as structures per square kilometre (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-96433-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig8.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-53084-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig8.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig09",label:"Figure 9.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003EChanges in settlement morphology from south to north. A) 18°57´0″N, 89°18´36″W, Transect 2, Central Hills; B) 19°1´48″N, 89°33´0″W, Transect 2, Central Hills; C) 19°10´48″N, 89°33´36″W, Transect 3, Central Hills; D) 19°32´24″N, 89°43´12″W, Transect 1, Chenes; E) 19°34´48″N, 89°42´36″W, Transect 1, Chenes (note high frequency of \u003Cspan class=\"italic\"\u003Echich\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E mounds); F) 20°0´0″N, 89°39´0″W, Transect 1, Puuc-Bolonchen Hills (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-63708-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig9.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-83400-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig9.jpg",attrib:[]},{contentId:"fig10",label:"Figure 10.",description:"\u003Cspan class=\"p\"\u003ESites and settlement densities in the Alianza survey area (figure by authors).\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E",thumbnailSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-20022-mediumThumb-png-S0003598X24001480_fig10.jpg",enlargedSrc:"https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary-alt:20250124055856-26586-optimisedImage-png-S0003598X24001480_fig10.jpg",attrib:[]}]},pdf:{standardResolution:{fileUrl:"\u002Fcore\u002Fservices\u002Faop-cambridge-core\u002Fcontent\u002Fview\u002FFFDB435047017853F26CFC5D8804B08D\u002FS0003598X24001480a.pdf\u002Frunning-out-of-empty-space-environmental-lidar-and-the-crowded-ancient-landscape-of-campeche-mexico.pdf",fileSizeInMb:21,articleTitle:B,slugTitle:"running-out-of-empty-space-environmental-lidar-and-the-crowded-ancient-landscape-of-campeche-mexico"},highResolution:d,media:d},classification:[],supplementaryMaterials:[],relations:{corrections:[],correctionsOriginals:[],retractions:[],retractionsOriginals:[],addendums:[],addendumsOriginals:[],hasAnyRelations:b,hasAnyOriginalArticle:b},settings:{hasAccess:c,isOpenAccess:c,displayRightsLink:c,shouldDisplayCrossMark:b,shouldDisplayNasaAds:b,suppressPdf:b,isShareable:c,isAnnotationsEnabled:b,disableArticleCommentary:b,displayArticleCommentaryAsDiscussionLinks:b,isCommentsEnabled:b,hasContent:c,shouldDisplaySubmitContent:b,isResearchDirections:b,isQuestionCollection:b,isMathjaxEnabled:b},citationCount:l,openUrlParams:"?genre=article&atitle=Running%20out%20of%20empty%20space%3A%20environmental%20lidar%20and%20the%20crowded%20ancient%20landscape%20of%20Campeche%2C%20Mexico&jtitle=Antiquity&title=Antiquity&date=2024&volume=98&issue=401&spage=1340&epage=1358&sid=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore&aulast=Auld-Thomas&aufirst=Luke&doi=10.15184\u002Faqy.2024.148",ecommerceProducts:{digitalSku:t,paperBackSku:d,hardBackSku:d},subject:[],permissionUrl:"https:\u002F\u002Fs100.copyright.com\u002FAppDispatchServlet?publisherName=CUP&publication=AQY&title=Running%20out%20of%20empty%20space%3A%20environmental%20lidar%20and%20the%20crowded%20ancient%20landscape%20of%20Campeche%2C%20Mexico&publicationDate=29%20October%202024&author=Luke%20Auld-Thomas%2C%20Marcello%20A.%20Canuto%2C%20Adriana%20Vel%C3%A1zquez%20Morlet%2C%20Francisco%20Estrada-Belli%2C%20David%20Chatelain%2C%20Diego%20Matadamas%2C%20Michelle%20Pigott%2C%20Juan%20Carlos%20Fern%C3%A1ndez%20D%C3%ADaz&copyright=Copyright%20%C2%A9%20The%20Author(s)%2C%202024.%20Published%20by%20Cambridge%20University%20Press%20on%20behalf%20of%20Antiquity%20Publications%20Ltd&contentID=10.15184%2Faqy.2024.148&startPage=1340&endPage=1358&orderBeanReset=True&volumeNum=98&issueNum=401&oa=CC-BY"},breadcrumbs:[{name:"Home",url:"\u002Fcore"},{name:"Journals",url:"\u002Fcore\u002Fpublications\u002Fjournals"},{name:k,url:aa},{name:"Volume 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Mesoamerica","Remote Sensing","2021","Journal of Anthropological Archaeology","Science","Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports","Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA","S0003598X24001480","2023","article_aqy_ind_pur","2013","unknown","2020","2018","2016","Running out of empty space: environmental lidar and the crowded ancient landscape of Campeche, Mexico","2022","Los investigadores de la cultura Maya","Informe Final, Temporada 2019, Proyecto Regional Arqueológico La Corona","Ancient Mesoamerican population history: demography, social complexity, and change","Lords of the hills: ancient Maya settlement in the Puuc Region, Yucatan, Mexico","2019","The limits of settlement growth: a theoretical outline","The comparative archaeology of complex societies","Maya E groups: calendars, astronomy, and urbanism in the Early Lowlands","The ancient urban Maya: neighborhoods, inequality, and built form","Boletín","The man-aged mosaic: ancient Maya agriculture and resource use","The map of the ruins of Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico","The early Mesoamerican village","Lowland Maya settlement patterns","Archaeological reconaissance in Campeche, Quintana Roo, and Peten","Rescates y salvamentos arqueológicos en Campeche y Yucatán","Prehistoric Maya settlement: patterns at Becan, Campeche, Mexico","Pre-Hispanic Maya agriculture","Once beneath the forest: prehistoric terracing in the Río Bec Region of the Maya Lowlands","The population of Tikal: implications for Maya demography","The ancient Maya of Mexico: reinterpreting the past of the northern Maya Lowlands","Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA",0,"C06207AB2CE3EE948718B5F6E30870D7","antiquity","\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fantiquity","October 2024",1727740800000,"\u002Fcore\u002Fjournals\u002Fantiquity\u002Fissue\u002F4F08B4B75649C1ECF3B143360ADCD9F1","Living together in Río Bec houses: coresidence, rank, and alliance: noble farmers and weak kings in the Classic Maya Lowlands: the Río Bec Archaeological Project, 2002–2010","24","10.1017\u002FS0956536114000029","Sampled to death? The rise and fall of probability sampling in archaeology","American Antiquity","10.1017\u002Faaq.2020.39","Universidad Autónoma de Campeche","2009","219","Taking the high ground: a model for lowland Maya settlement patterns","10.1016\u002Fj.jaa.2021.101349","2024","10.2307\u002Fjj.12570391.11","Ancient lowland Maya complexity as revealed by airborne laser scanning of northern Guatemala","361","10.1126\u002Fscience.aau0137","Urbanism and anthropogenic landscapes","Annual Review of Anthropology","10.1146\u002Fannurev-anthro-102215-095852","Airborne lidar, archaeology, and the ancient Maya landscape at Caracol, Belize","Journal of Archaeological Science","10.1016\u002Fj.jas.2010.09.018","NASA Goddard's LIDAR, hyperspectral and thermal (G-LiHT) airborne imager","5","10.3390\u002Frs5084045","Prehispanic agrosystems and adaptive regions in the Maya lowlands","Culture and Agriculture","10.1525\u002Fcag.1998.20.2-3.87","Margin for error: anthropogenic geomorphology of Bajo edges in the Maya lowlands","Geomorphology","127","10.1016\u002Fj.geomorph.2018.09.002","Lords of the hills: Classic Maya settlement patterns and political iconography in the puuc region, Mexico","10.1017\u002FS095653610000105X","Ancient agricultural farmsteads in the Río Bec region of Yucatan","Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility","Uncovering archaeological landscapes at Angkor using lidar","Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA","10.1073\u002Fpnas.1306539110","Dense pasts: settlement archaeology after Fox's The archaeology of the Cambridge region (1923)","10.15184\u002Faqy.2023.99","Now you see it… now you don't: understanding airborne mapping LiDAR collection and data product generation for archaeological research in Mesoamerica","2014","10.3390\u002Frs6109951","The application of airborne mapping LiDAR for the documentation of ancient cities and regions in tropical regions","Quaternary International","2017","10.1016\u002Fj.quaint.2016.08.050","Cambridge University Press","Low density, agrarian-based urbanism: a comparative view","Insights","2","1","University Press of Florida","10.5744\u002Fflorida\u002F9780813054353.001.0001","Archaeological LiDAR in Italy: enhancing research with publicly accessible data","Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment","Reanalyzing environmental lidar data for archaeology: Mesoamerican applications and implications","A consideration of the quatrefoil motif in Preclassic Mesoamerica","RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics","Ancient Maya rural settlement patterns, household cooperation, and regional subsistence interdependency in the Río Bec area: contributions from G-LiHT","Journal of Anthropological Research","10.1086\u002F716750","Sāmoa's hidden past: lidar confirms inland settlement and suggests larger populations in pre-contact Sāmoa","Journal of the Polynesian Society","10.15286\u002Fjps.127.1.73-90","Space lidar for archaeology? Reanalyzing GEDI data for detection of ancient Maya buildings","Agrarian features, farmsteads, and homesteads in the Río Bec nuclear zone, Mexico","10.1017\u002FS0956536113000242","Some Maya sites in the northern Río Bec Region, Campeche","Mexicon","Un sitio monumental en Campeche. Exploraciones en el sitio S.C.R.","Arqueología Mexicana","More than 10,000 pre-Columbian earthworks are still hidden throughout Amazonia","10.1126\u002Fscience.ade2541","Lidar reveals pre-Hispanic low-density urbanism in the Bolivian Amazon","Nature","10.1038\u002Fs41586-022-04780-4","Boots on the ground at Yaxnohcah: ground-truthing LiDAR in a complex tropical landscape","Advances in Archaeological Practice","10.7183\u002F2326-3768.4.3.314","University of New Mexico Press","1981","Lidar survey of ancient Maya settlement in the Puuc region of Yucatan, Mexico","PLoS ONE","10.1371\u002Fjournal.pone.0249314","Two thousand years of garden urbanism in the Upper Amazon","10.1126\u002Fscience.adi6317","The lowland Maya settlement landscape: environmental LiDAR and ecology","Prehispanic Maya burnt lime industries: previous studies and future directions","10.1017\u002FS0956536117000347","Ancient Maya water management, agriculture, and society in the area of Chactún, Campeche, Mexico","10.1016\u002Fj.jaa.2020.101261","Reimagining the development of downtown Cahokia using remote sensing visualizations from the western edge of the Grand Plaza","Land","12","10.3390\u002Fland12020342","Detecting Classic Maya settlements with lidar-derived relief visualizations","10.3390\u002Frs12172838","Considering urbanism at Mound Key (Caalus), the capital of the Calusa in the 16th century, southwest Florida, USA","10.1016\u002Fj.jaa.2023.101546","Routledge","VAT method for visualization of mass movement features: an alternative to hillshaded DEM","10.3390\u002Frs11242946","https:\u002F\u002Fstatic.cambridge.org\u002Fbinary\u002Fversion\u002Fid\u002Furn:cambridge.org:id:binary:20250123073139764-0453:S0003598X24001480:S0003598X24001480_tab1.png"));</script><script src="/core/page-component/06cd607.js" defer></script><script src="/core/page-component/20147ec.js" defer></script><script src="/core/page-component/66884fb.js" defer></script><script src="/core/page-component/6f4302c.js" defer></script> </div> </div> <div id="article-new-home-productCitations" class="product-citations-modal reveal-modal medium" data-reveal role="dialog" aria-labelledby="article-new-home-citedByModalHeader"> <div class="header"> <div class="heading_07 margin-bottom" id="article-new-home-citedByModalHeader">Cited by</div> </div> <div class="citation-content"> <div class="row collapse header margin-top productCitations-content"> <ul class="small-12 small-centered columns citations"> <li class="fade-in section-container active"> <a href="#" class="section-button" data-id="article-new-home-crossref-citations"> <div class="circular medium citation"> <img src="https://assets.crossref.org/logo/crossref-logo-100.png" alt="Crossref logo"> <span class="citation-count">1</span> </div> </a> </li> <li class="fade-in section-container"> <a href="#" class="section-button" data-id="article-new-home-scholar-citations"> <div class="circular medium citation"> <img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Google_Scholar_logo_2015.PNG" alt="Google Scholar logo"> </div> </a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="row wrapper no-padding-top section-content"> <div class="small-10 small-centered columns"> <section class="content" id="article-new-home-crossref-citations"> <div class="large-12 columns"> <div class="panel margin-top-small citation-container"> <div class="row"> <div class="medium-12 columns"> <div class="print-only print-heading margin-bottom-large">Crossref Citations</div> <div class="row margin-bottom"> <div class="small-1 columns"> <a href="http://www.crossref.org/citedby/index.html" target="_blank"> <img src="https://assets.crossref.org/logo/crossref-logo-100.png" alt="Crossref logo"> </a> </div> <div class="small-11 columns"> <h5 class="heading_10"> This article has been cited by the following publications. 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