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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Five_Classics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Five Classics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Five_Classics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Han_imperial_library" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Han_imperial_library"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Han imperial library</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Han_imperial_library-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Song_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Song_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Song dynasty</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Song_dynasty-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet 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dynasty subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ming_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thirteen_Classics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thirteen_Classics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Thirteen Classics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thirteen_Classics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_classics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_classics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>List of classics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_classics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of classics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_classics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_221_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_221_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Before 221 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_221_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classics_branch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classics_branch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Classics branch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classics_branch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_branch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_branch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>History branch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_branch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_branch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_branch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Philosophy branch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_branch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_206_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_206_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>After 206 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_206_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese classics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كلاسيكيات صينية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كلاسيكيات صينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testos_chinos_cl%C3%A1sicos" title="Testos chinos clásicos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Testos chinos clásicos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A0ssic_xin%C3%A8s" title="Clàssic xinès – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Clàssic xinès" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textos_chinos_cl%C3%A1sicos" title="Textos chinos clásicos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Textos chinos clásicos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="کلاسیک چینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کلاسیک چینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classique_chinois" title="Classique chinois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Classique chinois" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasik_Tionghoa" title="Klasik Tionghoa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Klasik Tionghoa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="קלאסיקות סיניות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלאסיקות סיניות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testos_clasica_xines" title="Testos clasica xines – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Testos clasica xines" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karya_Klasik_Cina" title="Karya Klasik Cina – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Karya Klasik Cina" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiske_klassiske_tekster" title="Kinesiske klassiske tekster – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kinesiske klassiske tekster" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81" title="چینی ادبیات عالیہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چینی ادبیات عالیہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasyka_chi%C5%84ska" title="Klasyka chińska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Klasyka chińska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textos_cl%C3%A1ssicos_chineses" title="Textos clássicos chineses – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Textos clássicos chineses" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Классические китайские тексты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Классические китайские тексты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kineski_klasici" title="Kineski klasici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kineski klasici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_klasikleri" title="Çin klasikleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin klasikleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81" title="چینی ادبیات عالیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چینی ادبیات عالیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n_t%E1%BB%8Bch_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n_Trung_Qu%E1%BB%91c" title="Điển tịch cổ điển Trung Quốc – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Điển tịch cổ điển Trung Quốc" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%8F%A4%E7%B1%8D" title="中國古籍 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中國古籍" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q576921#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Chinese+classics%22">"Chinese classics"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Chinese+classics%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Chinese+classics%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Chinese+classics%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Chinese+classics%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Chinese+classics%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Chinese classics</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%8F%A4%E7%B1%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:中國古籍">中國古籍</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%A4%E7%B1%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:中国古籍">中国古籍</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Zhōngguó gǔjí</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Chinese classics</b> or <b>canonical texts</b> are the works of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese literature</a> authored prior to the establishment of the imperial <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> in 221 BC. Prominent examples include the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Four Books and Five Classics</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Confucian">Neo-Confucian</a> tradition, themselves an abridgment of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Classics" title="Thirteen Classics">Thirteen Classics</a>. The Chinese classics used a form of <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">written Chinese</a> consciously imitated by later authors, now known as <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>. A common Chinese word for "classic" (<span lang="zh-Hant">經</span>; <span lang="zh-Hans">经</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jīng</span></i>) literally means '<a href="/wiki/Warp_(weaving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Warp (weaving)">warp thread</a>', in reference to the techniques by which works of this period were bound into volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-Voorst_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voorst-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Texts may include <i>shi</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">史</span></span>, '<a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">histories</a>') <i>zi</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">子</span></span> 'master texts'), <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">philosophical treatises</a> usually associated with an individual and later systematized into schools of thought but also including works on agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">medicine</a>, mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">astronomy</a>, divination, art criticism, and other miscellaneous writings) and <i>ji</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%86" class="extiw" title="wikt:集">集</a></span></span> 'literary works') as well as the cultivation of <i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Jing (Chinese medicine)">jing</a></i>, 'essence' in Chinese medicine. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics were the subjects of mandatory study by those <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> scholars who wished to take the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> and needed to pass them in order to become <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">scholar-officials</a>. Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not become part of the literati—or even a military officer in some periods—without having memorized them. Generally, children first memorized the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Three_Character_Classic" title="Three Character Classic">Three Character Classic</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Family_Surnames" title="Hundred Family Surnames">Hundred Family Surnames</a></i> and they then went on to memorize the other classics. The literate elite therefore shared a common culture and set of values.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Qin_dynasty">Qin dynasty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Qin dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_texts">Loss of texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Loss of texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i>, after <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor of China</a>, unified China in 221 BC, his chancellor <a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a> suggested suppressing intellectual discourse to unify thought and political opinion. This was alleged to have destroyed philosophical treatises of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>, with the goal of strengthening the official Qin governing philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>. According to the <i>Shiji</i>, three categories of books were viewed by Li Si to be most dangerous politically. These were poetry, history (especially historical records of other states than Qin), and philosophy. The ancient collection of poetry and historical records contained many stories concerning the ancient virtuous rulers. Li Si believed that if the people were to read these works they were likely to invoke the past and become dissatisfied with the present. The reason for opposing various schools of philosophy was that they advocated political ideas often incompatible with the totalitarian regime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan1972105–107_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan1972105–107-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern historians doubt the details of the story, which first appeared more than a century later. Regarding the alleged Qin objective of strengthening Legalism, the traditional account is anachronistic in that Legalism was not yet a defined category of thought during the Qin period,<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_2003_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the "schools of thought" model is no longer considered to be an accurate portrayal of the intellectual history of pre-imperial China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECsikszentmihalyiNylan200359–99_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECsikszentmihalyiNylan200359–99-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer2012247–249_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2012247–249-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrebnev20222–3,_254–255_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrebnev20222–3,_254–255-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Nylan" title="Michael Nylan">Michael Nylan</a> observes that despite its mythic significance, the "<a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">burning of books and burying of scholars</a>" legend does not bear close scrutiny. Nylan suggests that the reason Han dynasty scholars charged the Qin with destroying the Confucian <a href="/wiki/Five_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Classics">Five Classics</a> was partly to "slander" the state they defeated and partly because Han scholars misunderstood the nature of the texts, for it was only after the founding of the Han that Sima Qian labeled the Five Classics as Confucian. Nylan also points out that the Qin court appointed classical scholars who were specialists on the <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i>, which meant that these texts would have been exempted, and that the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan" title="Zuo Zhuan">Zuo Zhuan</a></i> did not contain the glorification of defeated feudal states which the First Emperor gave as his reason for destroying them. Nylan further suggests that the story might be based on the fact that the Qin palace was razed in 207 BC and many books were undoubtedly lost at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENylan200129–30_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan200129–30-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Martin Kern adds that Qin and early Han writings frequently cite the Classics, especially the <i>Documents</i> and the <i>Classic of Poetry</i>, which would not have been possible if they had been burned, as reported.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKern2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqY32-zfTU9ACq22statusoftheClassics22_111–112]_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKern2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqY32-zfTU9ACq22statusoftheClassics22_111–112]-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Western_Han_dynasty">Western Han dynasty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Western Han dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Five_Classics">Five Classics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Five Classics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>Five Classics</b> (<span lang="zh-Hant">五經</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Wǔjīng</span></i>) are five pre-Qin texts that became part of the state-sponsored curriculum during the <a href="/wiki/Western_Han_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Han dynasty">Western Han dynasty</a>, which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as a set collection, and to be called collectively the "Five Classics".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several of the texts were already prominent by the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, but the literature culture at the time did not lend itself to clear boundaries between works, so a high degree of variance between individual witnesses of the same title was common, as well as considerable intertextuality and cognate chapters between different titles. <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>, the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the <i>Spring and Autumn Annals</i> as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods. </p> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i></dt> <dd>A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the royal house.</dd> <dt><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i></dt> <dd>A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It is possibly the oldest Chinese narrative, and may date from the 6th century BC. It includes examples of early Chinese prose.</dd> <dt><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i></dt> <dd>Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. The version studied today is a re-worked version compiled by scholars in the third century BC rather than the original text, which is said to have been edited by Confucius himself.</dd> <dt><i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i></dt> <dd>The book contains a <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> system comparable to Western <a href="/wiki/Geomancy" title="Geomancy">geomancy</a> or the West African <a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a> system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In Western cultures and modern East Asia, it is still widely used for this purpose.</dd> <dt><i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i></dt> <dd>A historical record of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Lu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Lu">State of Lu</a>, Confucius's native state, 722–481 BC.</dd></dl> <p>Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn. However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems-Rituals-Spring and Autumn. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Han_imperial_library">Han imperial library</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Han imperial library"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liu_Xiang_(Han_scholar).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Liu_Xiang_%28Han_scholar%29.PNG/220px-Liu_Xiang_%28Han_scholar%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Liu_Xiang_%28Han_scholar%29.PNG/330px-Liu_Xiang_%28Han_scholar%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Liu_Xiang_%28Han_scholar%29.PNG/440px-Liu_Xiang_%28Han_scholar%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="915" /></a><figcaption>The Han-era scholar <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a> edited the text of many Chinese classical works such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i>, and compiled the <i><a href="/wiki/Biographies_of_Exemplary_Women" title="Biographies of Exemplary Women">Biographies of Exemplary Women</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 26 BCE, at the command of the emperor, <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a> (77–6 BC<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETwitchettLoewe1986192_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettLoewe1986192-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, the <i>Abstracts</i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">別錄</span>; <span lang="zh-Hans">别录</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Bielu</span></i>), and is the first known editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Mountains_and_Seas" title="Classic of Mountains and Seas">Classic of Mountains and Seas</a></i>, which was finished by his son.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liu also edited collections of stories and biographies, the <i><a href="/wiki/Biographies_of_Exemplary_Women" title="Biographies of Exemplary Women">Biographies of Exemplary Women</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has long erroneously been credited with compiling the <i><a href="/wiki/Biographies_of_the_Immortals" class="mw-redirect" title="Biographies of the Immortals">Biographies of the Immortals</a></i>, a collection of Taoist hagiographies and hymns.<sup id="cite_ref-lxzck_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lxzck-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (April 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Liu Xiang was also a poet, being credited with the "<a href="/wiki/Nine_Laments" title="Nine Laments">Nine Laments</a>" that appears in the <i><a href="/wiki/Chu_Ci" title="Chu Ci">Chu Ci</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The works edited and compiled by Liu Xiang include: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Rites" class="mw-redirect" title="Classic of Rites">Classic of Rites</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiegel1993295_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiegel1993295-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Filial_Piety" title="Classic of Filial Piety">Classic of Filial Piety</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1993b144_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1993b144-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_Zhou_Shu" title="Yi Zhou Shu">Yi Zhou Shu</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993b239_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993b239-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strategies_of_the_Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategies of the Warring States">Strategies of the Warring States</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsien19931_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsien19931-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheng1993315_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheng1993315-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(book)" title="Xunzi (book)">Xunzi</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1993b178_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1993b178-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao#Text" title="Shen Dao">Shenzi</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1993400_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1993400-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrett1993299_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrett1993299-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Blanc1993190_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Blanc1993190-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERickett1993246_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERickett1993246-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yanzi_Chunqiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanzi Chunqiu">Yanzi Chunqiu</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurrant1993484_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurrant1993484-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuoyuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuoyuan">Shuoyuan</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnechtges1993c443_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnechtges1993c443-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (initial compilation)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinxu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinxu (page does not exist)">Xinxu</a></i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">新序</span></span>; <i>New Prefaces</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENylan1993b155_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan1993b155-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (authorship)</li></ul></div> <p>This work was continued by his son, <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)" title="Liu Xin (scholar)">Liu Xin</a>, who finally completed the task after his father's death. The transmitted corpus of these classical texts all derives from the versions edited down by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin. Michael Nylan has characterised the scope of the Liu pair's editing as having been so vast that it affects our understanding of China's pre-imperial period to the same degree as the Qin unification does.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51">: 51 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Song_dynasty">Song dynasty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Song dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_Books">Four Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Four Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhu_xi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Zhu_xi.jpg/220px-Zhu_xi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Zhu_xi.jpg/330px-Zhu_xi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Zhu_xi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> selected the list of four books in the Song dynasty.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Four Books</b> (<span lang="zh-Hant">四書</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Sìshū</span></i>) are texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>. They were selected by <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> (1130–1200) during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardner_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardner-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are: </p> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Great_Learning" title="Great Learning">Great Learning</a></i></dt> <dd>Originally one chapter in the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i>. It consists of a short main text attributed to <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> and nine commentary chapters by <a href="/wiki/Zengzi" title="Zengzi">Zengzi</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Disciples_of_Confucius" title="Disciples of Confucius">disciples of Confucius</a>. Its importance is illustrated by Zengzi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning. It is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self-cultivation and investigation of things are linked.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Mean" title="Doctrine of the Mean">Doctrine of the Mean</a></i></dt> <dd>Another chapter in <i>Book of Rites</i>, attributed to Confucius's grandson <a href="/wiki/Zisi" title="Zisi">Zisi</a>. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>. It focuses on the <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a> that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue of <i><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">de</a></i>. Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i></dt> <dd>Thought to be a compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since Confucius's time, the <i>Analects</i> has heavily influenced the philosophy and moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well. The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examinations">imperial examinations</a>, started in the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> and eventually abolished with the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote and apply the words of Confucius in their essays.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a></i></dt> <dd>A collection of conversations of the scholar <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> with kings of his time. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the <i>Mencius</i> consists of long dialogues with extensive prose.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ming_dynasty">Ming dynasty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ming dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thirteen_Classics">Thirteen Classics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Thirteen Classics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The official curriculum of the imperial examination system from the Song dynasty onward are the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Classics" title="Thirteen Classics">Thirteen Classics</a>. In total, these works total to more than 600,000 characters that must be memorized in order to pass the examination. Moreover, these works are accompanied by extensive commentary and annotation, containing approximately 300 million characters by some estimates. </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i></li> <li>The Three Ritual Classics (<span lang="zh">三禮</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Sānlǐ</span></i>) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rites_of_Zhou" title="Rites of Zhou">Rites of Zhou</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yili_(text)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yili (text)">Ceremonies and Rites</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Great_Learning" title="Great Learning">Great Learning</a>" chapter (<span lang="zh">大學</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Dà xué</span></i>)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Mean" title="Doctrine of the Mean">Doctrine of the Mean</a>" chapter (<span lang="zh">中庸</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōng yōng</span></i>)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>The Three Commentaries on the <i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan" title="Zuo Zhuan">Zuo Zhuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gongyang_Zhuan" title="Gongyang Zhuan">The Commentary of Gongyang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guliang_Zhuan" title="Guliang Zhuan">The Commentary of Guliang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Jing" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiao Jing">Classic of Filial Piety</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Erya" title="Erya">Erya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_classics">List of classics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: List of classics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_221_BC">Before 221 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Before 221 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is often difficult or impossible to precisely date pre-Qin works beyond their being "pre-Qin", a period of 1000 years. Information in ancient China was often by oral tradition and passed down from generations before so was rarely written down, so the older the composition of the texts may not be in a chronological order as that which was arranged and presented by their attributed "authors".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The below list is therefore organized in the order which is found in the <i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Siku Quanshu</a></i> (<i>Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</i>), the encyclopedic collation of the works found in the imperial library of the Qing dynasty under the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>. The <i>Siku Quanshu</i> classifies all works into 4 top-level branches: the Confucian Classics and their secondary literature; history; philosophy; and poetry. There are sub-categories within each branch, but due to the small number of pre-Qin works in the Classics, History and Poetry branches, the sub-categories are only reproduced for the Philosophy branch. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classics_branch">Classics branch</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Classics branch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Title </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i> </td> <td>A manual of divination based on the <a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">eight trigrams</a> attributed to the mythical figure <a href="/wiki/Fuxi" title="Fuxi">Fuxi</a>—by at least the Eastern Zhou, these eight trigrams had been multiplied to create 64 <a href="/wiki/Hexagram_(I_Ching)" title="Hexagram (I Ching)">hexagrams</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i> </td> <td>A collection of documents and speeches allegedly from the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> periods, and even earlier. It contains some of the earliest examples of Chinese prose. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i> </td> <td>Made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities, 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. This book is traditionally credited as a compilation edited by Confucius. A standard version, named <i>Maoshi Zhengyi</i>, was compiled in the mid-7th century under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Kong_Yingda" title="Kong Yingda">Kong Yingda</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>The Three Rites </th> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Rites_of_Zhou" title="Rites of Zhou">Rites of Zhou</a></i> </td> <td>Conferred the status of a classic in the 12th century, in place of the lost <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Music" title="Classic of Music">Classic of Music</a></i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Yili_(text)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yili (text)">Book of Etiquette and Ceremony</a></i> </td> <td>Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Rites" class="mw-redirect" title="Classic of Rites">Classic of Rites</a></i> </td> <td>Describes social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites. </td></tr> <tr> <th><i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i> </th> <td>Chronologically the earliest of the annals; comprising about 16,000 characters, it records the events of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Lu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Lu">state of Lu</a> from 722 to 481 BC, with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Zuo_zhuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuo zhuan">Zuo zhuan</a></i> </td> <td>A different report of the same events as the <i>Spring and Autumn Annals</i> with a few significant differences. It covers a longer period than the <i>Spring and Autumn Annals</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Gongyang_Zhuan" title="Gongyang Zhuan">Commentary of Gongyang</a></i> </td> <td>Another surviving commentary on the same events (see <i>Spring and Autumn Annals</i>). </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Guliang_Zhuan" title="Guliang Zhuan">Commentary of Guliang</a></i> </td> <td>Another surviving commentary on the same events (see <i>Spring and Autumn Annals</i>). </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Filial_Piety" title="Classic of Filial Piety">Classic of Filial Piety</a></i> </td> <td>A small book giving advice on <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>; how to behave towards a senior (such as a father, an elder brother, or ruler). </td></tr> <tr> <th>The Four Books </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a></i> </td> <td>A book of anecdotes and conversations of <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i> </td> <td>A twenty-chapter work of dialogues attributed to Confucius and his disciples; traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius's own circle it is thought to have been set down by later Confucian scholars. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Mean" title="Doctrine of the Mean">Doctrine of the Mean</a> </td> <td>A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Great_Learning" title="Great Learning">Great Learning</a> </td> <td>A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu Xi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Philology </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Erya" title="Erya">Erya</a></i> </td> <td>A dictionary explaining the meaning and interpretation of words in the context of the Confucian Canon. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History_branch">History branch</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History branch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Title </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_Annals" title="Bamboo Annals">Bamboo Annals</a></i> </td> <td>History of Zhou dynasty excavated from a Wei tomb in the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin dynasty</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_Zhou_Shu" title="Yi Zhou Shu">Yi Zhou Shu</a></i> </td> <td>Similar in style to the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Guoyu_(book)" title="Guoyu (book)">Guoyu</a></i> </td> <td>A collection of historical records of numerous states recorded the period from the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> to 453 BC. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Strategies_of_the_Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategies of the Warring States">Strategies of the Warring States</a></i> </td> <td>Edited by <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Xiang (author)">Liu Xiang</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Yanzi_chunqiu" title="Yanzi chunqiu">Yanzi chunqiu</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to the statesman <a href="/wiki/Yan_Ying" title="Yan Ying">Yan Ying</a>, a contemporary of Confucius </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophy_branch">Philosophy branch</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Philosophy branch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The philosophical typology of individual pre-imperial texts has in every case been applied retroactively, rather than consciously within the text itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_2003_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The categorization of works of these genera has been highly contentious, especially in modern times. Many modern scholars reject the continued usefulness of this model as a heuristic for understanding the shape of the intellectual landscape of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECsikszentmihalyiNylan200359–99_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECsikszentmihalyiNylan200359–99-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer2012247–249_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2012247–249-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrebnev20222–3,_254–255_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrebnev20222–3,_254–255-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Title </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <th>Confucianism (excluding Classics branch) </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Kongzi_Jiayu" title="Kongzi Jiayu">Kongzi Jiayu</a></i> </td> <td>Collection of stories about Confucius and his disciples. Authenticity disputed. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(book)" title="Xunzi (book)">Xunzi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a>, an ancient Chinese collection of philosophical writings that makes the distinction between what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Seven Military Classics </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seven_Military_Classics" title="Seven Military Classics">Seven Military Classics</a></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Six_Secret_Teachings" title="Six Secret Teachings">Six Secret Teachings</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Ziya" title="Jiang Ziya">Jiang Ziya</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Sunzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunzi">Sunzi</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Wuzi" title="Wuzi">Wuzi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_the_Sima" title="The Methods of the Sima">The Methods of the Sima</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Sima_Rangju" title="Sima Rangju">Sima Rangju</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Wei_Liaozi" title="Wei Liaozi">Wei Liaozi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to Wei Liao. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Strategies_of_Huang_Shigong" title="Three Strategies of Huang Shigong">Three Strategies of Huang Shigong</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Ziya" title="Jiang Ziya">Jiang Ziya</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Thirty-Six_Stratagems" title="Thirty-Six Stratagems">Thirty-Six Stratagems</a></i> </td> <td>Recently recovered. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Legalism </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Guan_Zhong" title="Guan Zhong">Guan Zhong</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deng_Xizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deng Xizi (page does not exist)">Deng Xizi</a></i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/China-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/China-related articles"><span title="Chinese script needed (August 2024)">Chinese script needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td> <td>Fragment </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Lord_Shang" title="The Book of Lord Shang">The Book of Lord Shang</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Feizi (book)">Han Feizi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Shenzi</i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a>. All but one chapter is lost. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Canon_of_Laws" title="Canon of Laws">Canon of Laws</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Medicine </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Neijing" title="Huangdi Neijing">Huangdi Neijing</a></i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Nan_Jing_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Nan Jing (Chinese medicine)">Nan Jing</a></i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Miscellaneous </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuzi_(book)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuzi (book) (page does not exist)">Yuzi</a></i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/China-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/China-related articles"><span title="Chinese script needed (August 2024)">Chinese script needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td> <td>Fragment </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Mozi#Works_and_influence" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Yinwenzi</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/China-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/China-related articles"><span title="Chinese script needed (August 2024)">Chinese script needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td> <td>Fragment </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Shenzi</i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a>. It originally consisted of ten volumes and forty-two chapters, of which all but seven chapters have been lost. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Heguanzi" title="Heguanzi">Heguanzi</a></i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Long" title="Gongsun Long">Gongsun longzi</a></i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Guiguzi" title="Guiguzi">Guiguzi</a></i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshi_Chunqiu" title="Lüshi Chunqiu">Lüshi Chunqiu</a></i> </td> <td>An encyclopedia of ancient classics edited by <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Buwei" title="Lü Buwei">Lü Buwei</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Shizi_(book)" title="Shizi (book)">Shizi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to Shi Jiao </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mythology </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Mountains_and_Seas" title="Classic of Mountains and Seas">Classic of Mountains and Seas</a></i> </td> <td>A compilation of early geography descriptions of animals and myths from various locations around China.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tale_of_King_Mu,_Son_of_Heaven" title="Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven">Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven</a> </td> <td>tells the tale of king mu and his quest for immortality and after receiving it sadness over the death of his lover. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Taoism </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guan_Yinzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guan Yinzi (page does not exist)">Guan Yinzi</a></i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/China-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/China-related articles"><span title="Chinese script needed (August 2024)">Chinese script needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td> <td>Fragment </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></i> </td> <td>Attributed to <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Wenzi" title="Wenzi">Wenzi</a></i> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry">Poetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Title </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Chu_Ci" title="Chu Ci">Chu Ci</a></i> </td> <td>Aside from the <a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Shi Jing</a> (see Classics branch) the only surviving pre-Qin poetry collection<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Attributed to the southern <a href="/wiki/State_of_Chu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Chu">state of Chu</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/Qu_Yuan" title="Qu Yuan">Qu Yuan</a>. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_206_BC">After 206 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: After 206 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories" title="Twenty-Four Histories">Twenty-Four Histories</a></i>, a collection of authoritative histories of China for various dynasties: <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ban_Gu" title="Ban Gu">Ban Gu</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Later_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Later Han">Book of Later Han</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Fan_Ye_(historian)" title="Fan Ye (historian)">Fan Ye</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Records of the Three Kingdoms">Records of Three Kingdoms</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shou" title="Chen Shou">Chen Shou</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jin" title="Book of Jin">Book of Jin</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Fang_Xuanling" title="Fang Xuanling">Fang Xuanling</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Song" title="Book of Song">Book of Song</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Shen_Yue" title="Shen Yue">Shen Yue</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Southern_Qi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Southern Qi">Book of Southern Qi</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Zixian" title="Xiao Zixian">Xiao Zixian</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Liang" title="Book of Liang">Book of Liang</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Yao_Silian" title="Yao Silian">Yao Silian</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Chen" title="Book of Chen">Book of Chen</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Yao_Silian" title="Yao Silian">Yao Silian</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_Dynasties" title="History of the Southern Dynasties">History of the Southern Dynasties</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Yanshou" title="Zhao Yanshou">Li Yanshou</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wei" title="Book of Wei">Book of Wei</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Wei_Shou" title="Wei Shou">Wei Shou</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zhou" title="Book of Zhou">Book of Zhou</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Linghu_Defen" title="Linghu Defen">Linghu Defen</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Northern_Qi" title="Book of Northern Qi">Book of Northern Qi</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Li_Baiyao" title="Li Baiyao">Li Baiyao</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Dynasties" title="History of the Northern Dynasties">History of the Northern Dynasties</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Liu_Yanshou" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Yanshou">Li Yanshou</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Sui" title="Book of Sui">Book of Sui</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Wei_Zheng" title="Wei Zheng">Wei Zheng</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang" title="Old Book of Tang">Old Book of Tang</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xu" title="Liu Xu">Liu Xu</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/New_Book_of_Tang" title="New Book of Tang">New Book of Tang</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Old_History_of_the_Five_Dynasties" title="Old History of the Five Dynasties">Old History of Five Dynasties</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Xue_Juzheng" title="Xue Juzheng">Xue Juzheng</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/New_History_of_the_Five_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="New History of the Five Dynasties">New History of Five Dynasties</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Song_(Yuan_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Song (Yuan dynasty)">History of Song</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Toqto%27a_(Yuan_dynasty)" title="Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)">Toqto'a</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Liao_Shi" class="mw-redirect" title="Liao Shi"><i>History of Liao</i></a> by Toqto'a</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jin" title="History of Jin">History of Jin</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Toqto%27a_(Yuan_dynasty)" title="Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)">Toqto'a</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Song_Lian" title="Song Lian">Song Lian</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tingyu" title="Zhang Tingyu">Zhang Tingyu</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Erxun" title="Zhao Erxun">Zhao Erxun</a> is usually referred as the 25th classic of history records</li> <li>The <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_History_of_Yuan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New History of Yuan (page does not exist)">New History of Yuan</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ke_Shaomin" title="Ke Shaomin">Ke Shaomin</a> is sometimes referred as the 26th classic of history records</li></ul></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Chronicles_of_Huayang" title="Chronicles of Huayang">Chronicles of Huayang</a></i>, an old record of ancient history and tales of southwestern China, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Chang_Qu" title="Chang Qu">Chang Qu</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Biographies_of_Exemplary_Women" title="Biographies of Exemplary Women">Biographies of Exemplary Women</a></i>, a biographical collection of exemplary women in ancient China, compiled by <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals_of_the_Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms">Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms</a></i>, a historical record of the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a>, attributed to Cui Hong, is lost.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Shiming" title="Shiming">Shiming</a></i>, is a dictionary compiled by Liu Xi by the end of 2nd century.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_New_Account_of_the_Tales_of_the_World" title="A New Account of the Tales of the World">A New Account of the Tales of the World</a></i>, a collection of historical anecdotes and character sketches of some 600 literati, musicians, and painters.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Thirty-Six_Strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirty-Six Strategies">Thirty-Six Strategies</a></i>, a military strategy book attributed to <a href="/wiki/Tan_Daoji" title="Tan Daoji">Tan Daoji</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a></i>, a review book on ancient Chinese literature and writings by <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xie" title="Liu Xie">Liu Xie</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Commentary_on_the_Water_Classic" title="Commentary on the Water Classic">Commentary on the Water Classic</a></i>, a book on hydrology of rivers in China attributed to the great geographer <a href="/wiki/Li_Daoyuan" title="Li Daoyuan">Li Daoyuan</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_between_Li_Jing_and_Tang_Taizong" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialogues between Li Jing and Tang Taizong">Dialogues between Li Jing and Tang Taizong</a></i>, a military strategy book attributed to <a href="/wiki/Li_Jing_(Tang_dynasty)" title="Li Jing (Tang dynasty)">Li Jing</a></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a></i>, with <a href="/wiki/Sima_Guang" title="Sima Guang">Sima Guang</a> as its main editor.</li> <li>The <i>Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue</i>, a historical record of the states of <a href="/wiki/State_of_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Wu">Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_of_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Yue">Yue</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>, attributed to Zhao Ye.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhenguan_Zhengyao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhenguan Zhengyao (page does not exist)">Zhenguan Zhengyao</a></i>, a record of governance strategies and leadership of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Taizong of Tang">Emperor Taizong of Tang</a>, attributed to Wu Jing.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Jiaoshi_Yilin" title="Jiaoshi Yilin">Jiaoshi Yilin</a></i>, a work modeled after the <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i>, composed during the <a href="/wiki/Western_Han_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Han dynasty">Western Han dynasty</a> and attributed to Jiao Yanshou.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art" title="The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art">The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art</a></i>, a mathematics Chinese book composed by several generations scholars of <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Thousand_Character_Classic" title="Thousand Character Classic">Thousand Character Classic</a></i>, attributed to Zhou Xingsi.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Astrology_of_the_Kaiyuan_Era" title="Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era">Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era</a></i>, compiled by <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Siddha" title="Gautama Siddha">Gautama Siddha</a>, is a Chinese encyclopedia on astrology and divination.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Shitong" title="Shitong">Shitong</a></i>, written by <a href="/wiki/Liu_Zhiji" title="Liu Zhiji">Liu Zhiji</a>, a work on historiography.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Tongdian" title="Tongdian">Tongdian</a></i>, written by <a href="/wiki/Du_You" title="Du You">Du You</a>, a contemporary text focused on the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Tang_Huiyao" title="Tang Huiyao">Tang Huiyao</a></i>, compiled by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Pu_(Song_dynasty)" title="Wang Pu (Song dynasty)">Wang Pu</a>, a text based on the institutional history of the Tang dynasty.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Tang_Records_on_the_Western_Regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Tang Records on the Western Regions">Great Tang Records on the Western Regions</a></i>, compiled by <a href="/wiki/Bianji" title="Bianji">Bianji</a>; a recount of <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>'s journey.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Miscellaneous_Morsels_from_Youyang" title="Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang">Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang</a></i>, written by <a href="/wiki/Duan_Chengshi" title="Duan Chengshi">Duan Chengshi</a>, records fantastic stories, anecdotes, and exotic customs.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Books_of_Song" title="Four Great Books of Song">Four Great Books of Song</a></i>, a term referring to the four large compilations during the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>: <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Yulan" title="Taiping Yulan">Taiping Yulan</a>,</i> a <i><a href="/wiki/Leishu" title="Leishu">leishu</a></i> encyclopedia.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Guangji" title="Taiping Guangji">Taiping Guangji</a></i>, a collection of folk tales and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Wenyuan_Yinghua" title="Wenyuan Yinghua">Wenyuan Yinghua</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Anthology" title="Anthology">anthology</a> of poetry, odes, songs and other writings.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Cefu_Yuangui" title="Cefu Yuangui">Cefu Yuangui</a></i>, a <i><a href="/wiki/Leishu" title="Leishu">leishu</a></i> encyclopedia of political essays, <a href="/wiki/Autobiographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Autobiographies">autobiographies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials">memorials</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Decrees">decrees</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">Dream Pool Essays</a></i>, a collection of essays on science, technology, military strategies, history, politics, music and arts, written by <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_Kaiwu" title="Tiangong Kaiwu">Tiangong Kaiwu</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedia</a> compiled by <a href="/wiki/Song_Yingxing" title="Song Yingxing">Song Yingxing</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Compendium_of_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="Compendium of Materia Medica">Compendium of Materia Medica</a></i>, a classic book of medicine written by <a href="/wiki/Li_Shizhen" title="Li Shizhen">Li Shizhen</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Library_of_the_Four_Treasuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Library of the Four Treasuries">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i>, the largest compilation of literature in Chinese history.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/New_Songs_from_the_Jade_Terrace" title="New Songs from the Jade Terrace">New Songs from the Jade Terrace</a></i>, a poetry collection from the <a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties" title="Six Dynasties">Six Dynasties</a> period.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></i>, compiled during the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, published in 1705.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiaolin_Guangji&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiaolin Guangji (page does not exist)">Xiaolin Guangji</a></i>, a collection of jokes compiled during the Qing dynasty.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="See_also">See also</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Chinese_texts" title="List of early Chinese texts">List of early Chinese texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaicheng_Stone_Classics" title="Kaicheng Stone Classics">Kaicheng Stone Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Script_Texts" title="Ancient Script Texts">Ancient Script Texts</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Voorst-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Voorst_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFvan_Voorst2007" class="citation book cs1">van Voorst, Robert E. 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Cengage. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-50387-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-50387-3"><bdi>978-0-495-50387-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthology+of+World+Scriptures&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-495-50387-3&rft.aulast=van+Voorst&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism/The-Five-Classics">"Confucianism"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettLoewe1986192-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETwitchettLoewe1986192_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTwitchettLoewe1986">Twitchett & Loewe 1986</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.L. Shaughnessy, <i>Rewriting Early Chinese Texts</i>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinsch2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hinsch, Bret (2005). "Reading <i>Lienüzhuan</i> (<i>Biographies of Women</i>) through the life of Liu Xiang". <i>Journal of Asian History</i>. <b>39</b> (2). 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"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Empire" in the Classical Era in China (304 BC–AD 316)". <i>Oriens Extremus</i>. <b>46</b>. Harrassowitz: 48–83. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24047664">24047664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oriens+Extremus&rft.atitle=%22Empire%22+in+the+Classical+Era+in+China+%28304+BC%E2%80%93AD+316%29&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=48-83&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24047664%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nylan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardner-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gardner_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel K. Gardner. <i>The Four Books: The Basic Teachings of the Later Confucian Tradition</i>. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-872-20826-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-872-20826-1">978-0-872-20826-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2017" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Michael (2017). <i>Confucius Beyond the </i>Analects<i><span></span></i>. Studies in the History of Chinese Texts. Vol. 7. Brill. pp. 4–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004339026_002">10.1163/9789004339026_002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-004-33902-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-004-33902-6"><bdi>978-9-004-33902-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucius+Beyond+the+Analects&rft.series=Studies+in+the+History+of+Chinese+Texts&rft.pages=4-8&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004339026_002&rft.isbn=978-9-004-33902-6&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cambridge History of Ancient China chapter 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOUYcJXKrO8C&q=classic+of+mountains+and+seas"><i>The Classic of Mountains and Seas</i></a>. Penguin. 2000. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-140-44719-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-140-44719-4"><bdi>978-0-140-44719-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Classic+of+Mountains+and+Seas&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-140-44719-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeOUYcJXKrO8C%26q%3Dclassic%2Bof%2Bmountains%2Band%2Bseas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSima" class="citation book cs1">Sima, Qian. <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Records+of+the+Grand+Historian&rft.aulast=Sima&rft.aufirst=Qian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/Symaa/Symaa25e.html">"Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars"</a>, <i>"The First Emperor of Qín"</i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/David_K._Jordan" title="David K. Jordan">David K. Jordan</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Burning+of+Books+and+Burying+of+Scholars&rft.btitle=%22The+First+Emperor+of+Q%C3%ADn%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpages.ucsd.edu%2F~dkjordan%2Fchin%2FSymaa%2FSymaa25e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan1972" class="citation journal cs1">Chan, Lois Mai (1972). "The Burning of the Books in China, 213 B.C.". <i>The Journal of Library History</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 101–108. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2259">0022-2259</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25540352">25540352</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Library+History&rft.atitle=The+Burning+of+the+Books+in+China%2C+213+B.C.&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=101-108&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25540352%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0022-2259&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Lois+Mai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCsikszentmihalyiNylan2003" class="citation journal cs1">Csikszentmihalyi, Mark; Nylan, Michael (2003). "Constructing Lineages and Inventing Traditions Through Exemplary Figures in Early China". <i>T'oung Pao</i>. <b>89</b> (1–3). Brill: 59–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853203322691329">10.1163/156853203322691329</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528923">4528923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27oung+Pao&rft.atitle=Constructing+Lineages+and+Inventing+Traditions+Through+Exemplary+Figures+in+Early+China&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=59-99&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853203322691329&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4528923%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Csikszentmihalyi&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Nylan%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFei2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fei, Zhangang (2009). "Liu Xiang". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_China" title="Encyclopedia of China">Encyclopedia of China</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5000-7958-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-5000-7958-3"><bdi>978-7-5000-7958-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Liu+Xiang&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+China&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-7-5000-7958-3&rft.aulast=Fei&rft.aufirst=Zhangang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrebnev2022" class="citation book cs1">Grebnev, Yegor (2022). <i>Mediation of legitimacy in early China: a study of the Yi Zhou shu and the Grand Duke traditions</i>. The Tang Center Series in Early China, Vol. 5. Columbia University Press. pp. 2–3, 254–255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231555036" title="Special:BookSources/9780231555036"><bdi>9780231555036</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2021053942">2021053942</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mediation+of+legitimacy+in+early+China%3A+a+study+of+the+Yi+Zhou+shu+and+the+Grand+Duke+traditions&rft.series=The+Tang+Center+Series+in+Early+China%2C+Vol.+5&rft.pages=2-3%2C+254-255&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2021053942&rft.isbn=9780231555036&rft.aulast=Grebnev&rft.aufirst=Yegor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkes1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hawkes_(Sinologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Hawkes (Sinologist)">Hawkes, David</a>, ed. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6T5kAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Songs of the South: An Ancient Chinese Anthology of Poems By Qu Yuan And Other Poets</i></a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-140-44375-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-140-44375-2"><bdi>978-0-140-44375-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Songs+of+the+South%3A+An+Ancient+Chinese+Anthology+of+Poems+By+Qu+Yuan+And+Other+Poets&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-140-44375-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6T5kAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKern2010" class="citation cs2">Kern, Martin (2010), "Early Chinese Literature: Beginnings through Western Han", in <a href="/wiki/Kang-i_Sun_Chang" title="Kang-i Sun Chang">Kang-i Sun Chang</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Owen_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Owen (academic)">Stephen Owen</a> (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qY32-zfTU9AC"><i>The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature</i></a>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–114, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521855587" title="Special:BookSources/9780521855587"><bdi>9780521855587</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Chinese+Literature%3A+Beginnings+through+Western+Han&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Chinese+Literature&rft.pages=1-114&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780521855587&rft.aulast=Kern&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqY32-zfTU9AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwitchettLoewe1986" class="citation book cs1">Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael, eds. (26 December 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IQLczAEACAAJ"><i>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8"><bdi>978-0-521-24327-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+1%2C+The+Ch%27in+and+Han+Empires%2C+221+BC-AD+220&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986-12-26&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24327-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIQLczAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewe1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e10hAQAAIAAJ"><i>Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hawaii+Reader+in+Traditional+Chinese+Culture&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=2005-01-31&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2785-4&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft.au=Steinhardt%2C+Nancy+Shatzman&rft.au=Goldin%2C+Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAZgBEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+classics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2012" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Dirk (2012). <i>Philosophy on Bamboo: Text and the Production of Meaning in Early China</i>. Studies in the History of Chinese Texts, Vol. 2. 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New Edition; Second, Revised printing March 2013). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674067158" title="Special:BookSources/9780674067158">9780674067158</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674067150" title="Special:BookSources/0674067150">0674067150</a>. See esp. pp. 365– 377, Ch. 28, "The Confucian Classics."</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_classics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Chinese_classics" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Special:Search/Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org">Chinese Text Project</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org">English</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/zh">Chinese</a>) (Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanonru-u.html">The Canonical Books of Confucianism</a>, David K. Jordan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100304142410/http://www.princeton.edu/~classbib/02electr.htm">Relevant Electronic Resources for Chinese Classical Studies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>in Traditional Chinese</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/ftmsw3">Scripta Sinica</a> Big classic texts database by <a href="/wiki/Academia_Sinica" title="Academia Sinica">Academia Sinica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071109061234/http://210.69.170.100/S25/">Palace Museum Chinese Text Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taconet.com.tw/terry55/">中國電子古籍世界</a> Classics database</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/rccat/">Research Center for Chinese Ancient Texts</a> includes <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chant.org">CHANT (CHinese ANcient Texts) Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040603100322/http://www.chinapage.com/big5/classic/classic.html">Chinese classic text online</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>in Simplified Chinese</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nebulis.org">凌云小筑</a> In Chinese, with articles and discussions on literature, history, and philosophy.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guoxue123.com">国学导航</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>in Japanese</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kanji.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/db-machine/toho/html/top.html">東方學デジタル圖書館</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Confucian_texts" title="Template:Confucian texts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Confucian_texts" title="Template talk:Confucian texts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Confucian_texts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Confucian texts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_classics_and_Confucian_texts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese classics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> texts</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics#Four_Books" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Four Books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Great_Learning" title="Great Learning">Great Learning</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Mean" title="Doctrine of the Mean">Doctrine of the Mean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics#Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Five Classics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Classics" title="Thirteen Classics">Thirteen Classics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rites_of_Zhou" title="Rites of Zhou">Rites of Zhou</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_and_Ceremonial" title="Etiquette and Ceremonial">Etiquette and Ceremonial</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Rites" title="Book of Rites">Book of Rites</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zuo_zhuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuo zhuan">Commentary of Zuo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gongyang_Zhuan" title="Gongyang Zhuan">Commentary of Gongyang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guliang_Zhuan" title="Guliang Zhuan">Commentary of Guliang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Erya" title="Erya">Erya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Filial_Piety" title="Classic of Filial Piety">Classic of Filial Piety</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">San Bai Qian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Character_Classic" title="Three Character Classic">Three Character Classic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Family_Surnames" title="Hundred Family Surnames">Hundred Family Surnames</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thousand_Character_Classic" title="Thousand Character Classic">Thousand Character Classic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Military_Classics" title="Seven Military Classics">Seven Military Classics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_the_Sima" title="The Methods of the Sima">The Methods of the Sima</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Six_Secret_Teachings" title="Six Secret Teachings">Six Secret Teachings</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wei_Liaozi" title="Wei Liaozi">Wei Liaozi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wuzi" title="Wuzi">Wu Zi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Strategies_of_Huang_Shigong" title="Three Strategies of Huang Shigong">Three Strategies of Huang Shigong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Questions_and_Replies_between_Tang_Taizong_and_Li_Weigong" title="Questions and Replies between Tang Taizong and Li Weigong">Questions and Replies between Tang Taizong and Li Weigong</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Mathematics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_on_Numbers_and_Computation" title="Book on Numbers and Computation">Book on Numbers and Computation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art" title="The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art">The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhoubi_Suanjing" title="Zhoubi Suanjing">Zhoubi Suanjing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shushu_Jiyi" title="Shushu Jiyi">Shushu Jiyi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Haidao_Suanjing" title="Haidao Suanjing">Haidao Suanjing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sunzi_Suanjing" title="Sunzi Suanjing">Sunzi Suanjing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Computational_Canons" title="Ten Computational Canons">Ten Computational Canons</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bai_Hu_Tong" title="Bai Hu Tong">Bai Hu Tong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biographies_of_Exemplary_Women" title="Biographies of Exemplary Women">Biographies of Exemplary Women</a></i></li> <li><i><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/21px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/42px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table 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[\"CITEREFD.C._Lau_劉殿爵1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Hawkes1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_R._Knechtges1993\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_S._Nivison1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurrant1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_L._Shaughnessy1993a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_L._Shaughnessy1993c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFei2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrebnev2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH.D._Roth1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHans_Bielenstein_and_Michael_Loewe1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkes1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerrlee_G._Creel1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinsch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_R._Hightower1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJean_Levi1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJeffrey_K._Riegel1993b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Lagerwey1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Makeham1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKern2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnechtges1993c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrzysztof_Gawlikowski_and_Michael_Loewe1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe_Blanc1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoewe1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoewe1993b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMairSteinhardtGoldin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Carson_and_Michael_Loewe1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Loewe1993a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Loewe1993c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Loewe1993d\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Loewe1993e\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Loewe1993f\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Nylan1993a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Nylan1993c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNathan_Sivin1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeininger1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNylan1993b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNylan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNylan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR.P._Kramers1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiccardo_Fracasso1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRickett1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiegel1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy_Andrew_Miller1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRémi_Mathieu1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaughnessy1993b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSima\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteve_DavidsonMichael_Loewe1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheobald2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimoteus_Pokora1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimoteus_Pokora_and_Michael_Loewe1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsien1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTwitchettLoewe1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW._South_Coblin1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_G._Boltz1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_G._Boltz1993a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_G._Boltz1993c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_G._Boltz1993d\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Voorst2007\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 75,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 6,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Columns-list\"] = 1,\n [\"Confucian texts\"] = 1,\n [\"Csni\"] = 4,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Excessive examples\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple issues\"] = 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