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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamics_of_turning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamics_of_turning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Dynamics of turning</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dynamics_of_turning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dynamics of turning subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dynamics_of_turning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speeds_and_feeds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speeds_and_feeds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Speeds and feeds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speeds_and_feeds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Feed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D8%A9_(%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%BA%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%86)" title="خراطة (تشغيل المعادن) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خراطة (تشغيل المعادن)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torna" title="Torna – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Torna" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Тачэнне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тачэнне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drahn" title="Drahn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Drahn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornejament" title="Tornejament – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tornejament" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soustru%C5%BEen%C3%AD" title="Soustružení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Soustružení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drehen_(Verfahren)" title="Drehen (Verfahren) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Drehen (Verfahren)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treimine" title="Treimine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Treimine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Сювнома – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Сювнома" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilindrado" title="Cilindrado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cilindrado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="تراشکاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تراشکاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chariotage" title="Chariotage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chariotage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%87%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Շրջատաշում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Շրջատաշում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="खराद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खराद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokarenje" title="Tokarenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tokarenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornitura" title="Tornitura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tornitura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Жону – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жону" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draaien_(verspaningstechniek)" title="Draaien (verspaningstechniek) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Draaien (verspaningstechniek)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8B%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0" title="ターニング – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ターニング" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreiing" title="Dreiing – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dreiing" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreiing" title="Dreiing – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dreiing" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toczenie" title="Toczenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Toczenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strunjire" title="Strunjire – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Strunjire" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Токарная обработка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Токарная обработка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning" title="Turning – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Turning" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BAstru%C5%BEenie" title="Sústruženie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sústruženie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stru%C5%BEenje" title="Struženje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Struženje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Machining process</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Turing" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing">Turing</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the machining operation. For the generic use of the word, see <a href="/wiki/Rotation" title="Rotation">rotation</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Turning_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Turning (disambiguation)">Turning (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SchruppenDrehen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/SchruppenDrehen.jpg/220px-SchruppenDrehen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/SchruppenDrehen.jpg/330px-SchruppenDrehen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/SchruppenDrehen.jpg/440px-SchruppenDrehen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Roughing, or rough turning</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StechenDrehen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/StechenDrehen.jpg/250px-StechenDrehen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/StechenDrehen.jpg/330px-StechenDrehen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/StechenDrehen.jpg/500px-StechenDrehen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Parting aluminium</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SchlichtenDrehen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/SchlichtenDrehen.jpg/250px-SchlichtenDrehen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/SchlichtenDrehen.jpg/330px-SchlichtenDrehen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/SchlichtenDrehen.jpg/500px-SchlichtenDrehen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Finish turning</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Turning</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Machining" title="Machining">machining</a> process in which a <a href="/wiki/Cutting_tool_(machining)" title="Cutting tool (machining)">cutting tool</a>, typically a non-rotary <a href="/wiki/Tool_bit" title="Tool bit">tool bit</a>, describes a <a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helix</a> toolpath by moving more or less linearly while the workpiece <a href="/wiki/Rotation_around_a_fixed_axis" title="Rotation around a fixed axis">rotates</a>. </p><p>Usually the term "turning" is reserved for the generation of <i>external</i> surfaces by this cutting action, whereas this same essential cutting action when applied to <i>internal</i> surfaces (holes, of one kind or another) is called "<a href="/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)" title="Boring (manufacturing)">boring</a>". Thus the phrase "turning and boring" categorizes the larger family of processes known as lathing. The cutting of faces on the workpiece, whether with a turning or boring tool, is called "facing", and may be lumped into either category as a subset. </p><p>Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of <a href="/wiki/Lathe" title="Lathe">lathe</a>, which frequently requires continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe which does not. Today the most common type of such automation is <a href="/wiki/Computer_numerical_control" title="Computer numerical control">computer numerical control</a>, better known as CNC. (CNC is also commonly used with many other types of machining besides turning.) </p><p>When turning, the <a href="/wiki/Workpiece" title="Workpiece">workpiece</a> (a piece of relatively rigid material such as wood, metal, plastic, or stone) is rotated and a <a href="/wiki/Tool_bit" title="Tool bit">cutting tool</a> is traversed along 1, 2, or 3 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can be either on the outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as <a href="/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)" title="Boring (manufacturing)">boring</a>) to produce tubular components to various geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes could even be used to produce complex geometric figures, even the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic solids">platonic solids</a>; although since the advent of CNC it has become unusual to use non-computerized toolpath control for this purpose. </p><p>The turning processes are typically carried out on a lathe, considered to be the oldest of machine tools, and can be of different types such as <i>straight turning</i>, <i>taper turning</i>, <i>profiling</i> or <i>external grooving</i>. Those types of turning processes can produce various shapes of materials such as <i>straight</i>, <i>conical</i>, <i>curved</i>, or <i>grooved</i> workpieces. In general, turning uses simple <i>single-point cutting</i> tools. Each group of workpiece materials has an optimum set of tool angles that have been developed through the years. </p><p>The bits of waste metal from turning operations are known as chips (North America), or <a href="/wiki/Swarf" title="Swarf">swarf</a> (Britain). In some areas they may be known as <i>turnings</i>. </p><p>The tool's axes of movement may be literally a straight line, or they may be along some set of curves or angles, but they are essentially linear (in the non mathematical sense). </p><p>A component that is subject to turning operations can be termed as a “Turned Part” or “Machined Component”. Turning operations are carried out on a lathe machine which can be manually or CNC operated. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Turning_operations">Turning operations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Turning operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Turning specific operations include: </p> <dl><dt>Turning</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%A4ngs-Rund-Drehen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/L%C3%A4ngs-Rund-Drehen.jpg/120px-L%C3%A4ngs-Rund-Drehen.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/L%C3%A4ngs-Rund-Drehen.jpg/250px-L%C3%A4ngs-Rund-Drehen.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="745" /></a><figcaption>Turning</figcaption></figure> <p>The general process of turning involves rotating a part while a single-point cutting tool is moved parallel to the axis of rotation.<sup id="cite_ref-todd_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todd-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turning can be done on the external surface of the part as well as the internal surface (the process known as <a href="/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)" title="Boring (manufacturing)">boring</a>). The starting material is generally a workpiece generated by other processes such as <a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">casting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">forging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">extrusion</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Drawing_(manufacturing)" title="Drawing (manufacturing)">drawing</a>. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dt>Tapered turning</dt> <dd>Tapered turning produces a cylindrical shape that gradually decreases in diameter from one end to the other. This can be achieved a) from the compound slide b) from taper turning attachment c) using a hydraulic copy attachment d) using a C.N.C. lathe e) using a form tool f) by the offsetting of the tailstock - this method more suited for shallow tapers.<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dt>Spherical generation</dt> <dd>Spherical generation produces a spherical finished surface by turning a form around a fixed axis of revolution. Methods include a) using hydraulic copy attachment b) C.N.C. (computerised numerically controlled) lathe c) using a form tool (a rough and ready method) d) using bed jig (need drawing to explain).<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dt><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Hard_turning"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Hard turning</span></span></dt> <dd>Hard turning is a type of turning done on materials with a <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockwell scale">Rockwell C</a> hardness greater than 45. It is typically performed after the workpiece is <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">heat treated</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-koepfer_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koepfer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>The process is intended to replace or limit traditional <a href="/wiki/Grinding_(abrasive_cutting)" title="Grinding (abrasive cutting)">grinding operations</a>. Hard turning, when applied for purely stock removal purposes, competes favorably with rough grinding. However, when it is applied for finishing where form and dimension are critical, grinding is superior. Grinding produces higher dimensional accuracy of roundness and cylindricity. In addition, polished surface finishes of Rz=0.3-0.8z cannot be achieved with hard turning alone. Hard turning is appropriate for parts requiring a roundness accuracy of 0.5-12 micrometres, and/or surface roughness of Rz 0.8–7.0 micrometres. It is used for gears, injection pump components, and hydraulic components, among other applications.<sup id="cite_ref-koepfer_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koepfer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dt><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509" /><span class="vanchor"><span id="Facing"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Facing</span></span></dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quer-Plan-Drehen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Quer-Plan-Drehen.jpg/110px-Quer-Plan-Drehen.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Quer-Plan-Drehen.jpg/165px-Quer-Plan-Drehen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Quer-Plan-Drehen.jpg/220px-Quer-Plan-Drehen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>Facing</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Facing_(machining)" title="Facing (machining)">Facing</a> in the context of turning work involves moving the cutting tool at right angles to the axis of rotation of the rotating workpiece.<sup id="cite_ref-todd_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todd-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be performed by the operation of the cross-slide, if one is fitted, as distinct from the longitudinal feed (turning). It is frequently the first operation performed in the production of the workpiece, and often the last—hence the phrase "ending up". </p> <dl><dt>Parting</dt></dl> <p>This process, also called <b>parting off</b> or <b>cutoff</b>, is used to create deep grooves which will remove a completed or part-complete component from its parent stock. </p> <dl><dt>Grooving</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quer-Rund-Drehen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Quer-Rund-Drehen.jpg/120px-Quer-Rund-Drehen.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Quer-Rund-Drehen.jpg/250px-Quer-Rund-Drehen.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>External grooving</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%A4ngs-Plan-Drehen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/L%C3%A4ngs-Plan-Drehen.jpg/110px-L%C3%A4ngs-Plan-Drehen.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/L%C3%A4ngs-Plan-Drehen.jpg/165px-L%C3%A4ngs-Plan-Drehen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/L%C3%A4ngs-Plan-Drehen.jpg/220px-L%C3%A4ngs-Plan-Drehen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>Face grooving</figcaption></figure> <p>Grooving is like parting, except that grooves are cut to a specific depth instead of severing a completed/part-complete component from the stock. Grooving can be performed on internal and external surfaces, as well as on the face of the part (face grooving or trepanning). </p><p>Non-specific operations include: </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)" title="Boring (manufacturing)">Boring</a></dt> <dd>Enlarging or smoothing an existing hole created by drilling, moulding etc.i.e. the machining of internal cylindrical forms (generating) a) by mounting workpiece to the spindle via a chuck or faceplate b) by mounting workpiece onto the cross slide and placing cutting tool into the chuck. This work is suitable for castings that are too awkward to mount in the face plate. On long bed lathes large workpiece can be bolted to a fixture on the bed and a shaft passed between two lugs on the workpiece and these lugs can be bored out to size. A limited application but one that is available to the skilled turner/machinist.<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Drilling" title="Drilling">Drilling</a></dt> <dd>is used to remove material from the inside of a workpiece. This process utilizes standard <a href="/wiki/Drill_bits" class="mw-redirect" title="Drill bits">drill bits</a> held stationary in the tail stock or tool turret of the lathe. The process can be done by separately available drilling machines.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R%C3%A4ndelwerkzeug.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/R%C3%A4ndelwerkzeug.jpg/120px-R%C3%A4ndelwerkzeug.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/R%C3%A4ndelwerkzeug.jpg/250px-R%C3%A4ndelwerkzeug.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption>Knurling</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Knurling" title="Knurling">Knurling</a></dt> <dd>The cutting of a serrated pattern onto the surface of a part to use as a hand grip or as a visual enhancement using a special purpose knurling tool.<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Reaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaming">Reaming</a></dt> <dd>The sizing operation that removes a small amount of metal from a hole already drilled.<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is done for making internal holes of very accurate diameters. For example, a 6mm hole is made by drilling with 5.98 mm drill bit and then reamed to accurate dimensions.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Threading_(manufacturing)" title="Threading (manufacturing)">Threading</a></dt> <dd>Both standard and non-standard screw threads can be turned on a lathe using an appropriate cutting tool. (Usually having a 60, or 55° nose angle) Either externally, or within a bore (tapping operation is a process of making threads either inner or outer in an work piece.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally referred to as single-point threading.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>tapping of threaded nuts and holes a) using hand taps and tailstock centre b)using a tapping device with a slipping clutch to reduce risk of breakage of the tap.<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>threading operations include a)all types of external and internal thread forms using a single point tool also taper threads, double start threads, multi start threads, worms as used in worm wheel reduction boxes, leadscrew with single or multistart threads. b) by the use of threading boxes fitted with 4 form tools, up to 2" diameter threads but it is possible to find larger boxes than this.<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_turning" title="Polygonal turning">Polygonal turning</a></dt> <dd>in which non-circular forms are machined without interrupting the rotation of the raw material.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lathes">Lathes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Lathes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lathe" title="Lathe">Lathe</a></div> <p>A lathe is a machine tool used principally for shaping pieces of metal, wood, or other materials by causing the workpiece to be held and rotated by the lathe while a tool bit is advanced into the work causing the cutting action. Lathes can be divided into three types for easy identification: <a href="/wiki/Engine_lathe" class="mw-redirect" title="Engine lathe">engine lathe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turret_lathe" title="Turret lathe">turret lathe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>special purpose lathes</i>. Some smaller ones are bench mounted and semi-portable. The larger lathes are floor mounted and may require special transportation if they must be moved. Field and maintenance shops generally use a lathe that can be adapted to many operations and that is not too large to be moved from one work site to another. The engine lathe is ideally suited for this purpose. A trained operator can accomplish more machining jobs with the engine lathe than with any other machine tool. Turret lathes and special purpose lathes are usually used in production or job shops for <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> or specialized parts, while basic engine lathes are usually used for any type of lathe work. </p><p><br /> Over the years, in the manufacturing industry, with the improvement of the difficulty of product processing, the emergence of CNC turning milling compound centers, which maintains the characteristics of lathe machining, but also increased the function of the <a href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling machine</a>, the combination of the two to improve production efficiency. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Workholding_methods">Workholding methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Workholding methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HardingeR8Collets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/HardingeR8Collets.jpg/110px-HardingeR8Collets.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/HardingeR8Collets.jpg/165px-HardingeR8Collets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/HardingeR8Collets.jpg/220px-HardingeR8Collets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1332" data-file-height="1362" /></a><figcaption>Collets</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_(engineering)" title="Chuck (engineering)">Chuck</a>: Chucks are a very common workholding method. There are many types, some for round and square stock, and other for irregular shapes.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collet" title="Collet">Collet</a>: Primarily used for small round workpieces.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lathe_faceplate" title="Lathe faceplate">Faceplate</a>: A faceplate, drive dog, and mandrel may be used to turn D such as gear blanks.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lathe_center" title="Lathe center">Centers</a>: Pointed cones between which the part spins, often driven by a 'dog'. May be used to turn longer shafts and cylinders.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drive_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Drive center">Drive center</a>: Use hydraulic or spring-loaded teeth that "bite" into the end of workpieces and can be used when the entire length of the workpiece must be machined.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tooling">Tooling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tool_bit" title="Tool bit">Tool bit</a></div> <p>The various angles, shapes, and sizes of a <i>single-point cutting</i> tool have direct relation to the resulting surface of a workpiece in machining operations. Different types of angle such as <i><a href="/wiki/Rake_angle" title="Rake angle">rake angle</a></i>, <i>side rake angle</i>, <i>cutting-edge angle</i>, <i>relief angle</i>, <i>nose radius</i> exist and may be different with respect to the workpiece. Also, there are many shapes of <i>single-point cutting</i> tools, such as <i>V-shaped</i> and <i>Square.</i> Usually, a special toolholder is used to hold the cutting tool firmly during operation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dynamics_of_turning">Dynamics of turning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dynamics of turning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forces">Forces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The relative forces in a turning operation are important in the design of machine tools. The machine tool and its components must be able to withstand these forces without causing significant deflections, vibrations, or chatter during the operation. There are three principal forces during a turning process: </p> <ul><li>The <b>cutting or tangential force</b> acts downward on the tool tip allowing deflection of the workpiece upward. It supplies the energy required for the cutting operation. The specific cutting force required to cut the material is called specific cutting force. Cutting force depends on the material.</li> <li>The <b>axial or feed force</b> acts in the longitudinal direction. It is also called the feed force because it is in the feed direction of the tool. This force tends to push the tool away from the chuck.</li> <li>The <b>radial or thrust force</b> acts in the radial direction and tends to push the tool away from the workpiece.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speeds_and_feeds">Speeds and feeds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Speeds and feeds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Speeds_and_feeds" title="Speeds and feeds">Speeds and feeds</a> for turning are chosen based on cutter material, workpiece material, setup rigidity, machine tool rigidity and spindle power, coolant choice, and other factors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feed">Feed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Feed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The distance the tool advances into the material in one revolution is called "feed". It is specified as mm per revolution (mm/rev).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_turning" title="Diamond turning">Diamond turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine_turning" title="Engine turning">Engine turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_turning" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard turning">Hard turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_feet_per_minute" title="Surface feet per minute">Surface feet per minute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodturning" title="Woodturning">Woodturning</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-todd-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-todd_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-todd_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFToddAllenAl_ting1994" class="citation cs2">Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K.; Al ting, Leo (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6x1smAf_PAcC"><i>Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide</i></a>, Industrial Press Inc., p. 153, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8311-3049-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8311-3049-0"><bdi>0-8311-3049-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manufacturing+Processes+Reference+Guide&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Industrial+Press+Inc.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8311-3049-0&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft.au=Allen%2C+Dell+K.&rft.au=Al+ting%2C+Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6x1smAf_PAcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATurning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chapman-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chapman_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chapman_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chapman_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chapman_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chapman_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chapman_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chapman_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Workshop Technology by W.A.J. Chapman Ph.D. M.Sc.(Eng.), M.I.Mech.E., M.I.Prod.E. Principal Hatfield College of Technology, Hertfordshire first published 1951 part one, two and three published by Edward Arnold (publishers Limited</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-koepfer-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-koepfer_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-koepfer_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKoepfer2010" class="citation web cs1">Koepfer, Chris (2010-01-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.productionmachining.com/articles/hard-turning-as-an-alternative-to-grinding">"Hard Turning as an Alternative to Grinding"</a>. <i>Production Machining</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-03-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Production+Machining&rft.atitle=Hard+Turning+as+an+Alternative+to+Grinding&rft.date=2010-01-22&rft.aulast=Koepfer&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.productionmachining.com%2Farticles%2Fhard-turning-as-an-alternative-to-grinding&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATurning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/threading-on-a-lathe.aspx">"Threading On A Lathe : Modern Machine Shop"</a>. Mmsonline.com. 2003-01-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Threading+On+A+Lathe+%3A+Modern+Machine+Shop&rft.pub=Mmsonline.com&rft.date=2003-01-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mmsonline.com%2Farticles%2Fthreading-on-a-lathe.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATurning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhangYang2020" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Ce; Yang, Jianming (2020-01-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ItLHDwAAQBAJ&q=turret+lathe"><i>A History of Mechanical Engineering</i></a>. Springer Nature. pp. 128, <span class="nowrap">177–</span>9, 429. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-15-0833-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-15-0833-2"><bdi>978-981-15-0833-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mechanical+Engineering&rft.pages=128%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E177-%3C%2Fspan%3E9%2C+429&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2020-01-03&rft.isbn=978-981-15-0833-2&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Ce&rft.au=Yang%2C+Jianming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DItLHDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dturret%2Blathe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATurning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turning&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Turning_(machining_process)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Turning (machining process)">Turning (machining process)</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100129031806/http://electron.mit.edu/~gsteele/mirrors/www.nmis.org/EducationTraining/machineshop/lathe/intro.html">"Lathe Introduction"</a>. 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