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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Suburbs as substandard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suburbs_as_substandard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_innovation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_innovation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Transportation innovation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_innovation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flight_from_the_city" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flight_from_the_city"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Flight from the city</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flight_from_the_city-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lure_of_the_suburbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lure_of_the_suburbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Lure of the suburbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lure_of_the_suburbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conclusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conclusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Conclusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conclusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Awards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_research_on_the_subject" class="vector-toc-list-item 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searchaux" style="display:none">1985 book by Kenneth T. Jackson</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%; font-style:italic; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Crabgrass Frontier:<br />The Suburbanization of the United States <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crabgrass+Frontier%3A%3Cbr+%2F%3EThe+Suburbanization+of+the+United+States&rft.author=%5B%5BKenneth+T.+Jackson%5D%5D&rft.date=%5B%5B%3ACategory%3A1985+books%7C1985%5D%5D&rft.pub=%5B%5BOxford+University+Press%5D%5D&rft.place=United+States"></span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crabgrass_Frontier.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9b/Crabgrass_Frontier.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="260" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_T._Jackson" title="Kenneth T. Jackson">Kenneth T. Jackson</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">English</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_Planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban Planning">Urban Planning</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publisher</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication date</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Category:1985_books" title="Category:1985 books">1985</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publication place</th><td class="infobox-data">United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Media type</th><td class="infobox-data">Print</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-503610-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-503610-7">0-19-503610-7</a> (Hard Cover) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-504983-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-504983-7">0-19-504983-7</a> (Paperback)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">307.7/4 0973</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/LCC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCC (identifier)"><abbr title="Library of Congress Classification">LC Class</abbr></a></th><td class="infobox-data">HT384 .U5 J33 1985</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States</b></i><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a book written by historian <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_T._Jackson" title="Kenneth T. Jackson">Kenneth T. Jackson</a> and published in 1985. Extensively researched and referenced, the book takes into account factors that promoted the <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Suburbanization of the United States">suburbanization of the United States</a>, such as the availability of cheap land, construction methods, and transportation, as well as federal <a href="/wiki/Subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidies">subsidies</a> for highways and suburban housing. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jackson attempts to broadly interpret the American suburban experience, which he views as unique. He states that "the United States has thus far been unique in four important respects that can be summed up in the following sentence: affluent and middle-class Americans live in suburban areas that are far from their work places, in homes that they own, and in the centre of yards that by urban standards elsewhere are enormous. This uniqueness thus involves population density, home-ownership, residential status, and journey-to-work." His working definition of suburbs has four components: function (non-farm residential), class (middle and upper status), separation (a daily journey-to-work), and density (low relative to older sections). Also dominant in the book is the notion that the wealthy began the flight from the city first—something that the middle classes eventually emulated as city tax rates gradually increased to pay for resulting urban problems—as the poorer classes remained in the older central urban areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suburbs_as_substandard">Suburbs as substandard</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Suburbs as substandard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From ancient times, the city's primary function was as a central meeting place to conduct business. Jackson argues that before 1815 and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altstadt" title="Altstadt">every major city</a> was a "point" on a map that could be walked from edge to centre in two or three hours. Cities had five characteristics:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198514–16_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198514–16-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>High population density or "congestion", comparable to <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> in the 1980s: 35,000-75,000 residents per square mile.</li> <li>Sharp distinction between country and city. In <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> the demarcation was a literal <a href="/wiki/City_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="City Wall">wall</a> of defense (nowadays city walls may have been replaced by a <a href="/wiki/Ring_road" title="Ring road">ring road</a> or business boulevard).</li> <li>Mixture of functions with neighborhoods: without industrial factories, neighborhoods mixed commercial and residential activities.</li> <li>Short distances between work and residence; most people had to walk to work, and often lived and worked in the same building.</li> <li>Centrality of culture and elite residences. The upper classes lived within walking distance of work and cultural activities, while the poor laborers lived on the periphery of the urban areas along with the undesirable smells of trades like <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">animal skin tanning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soap_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Soap making">soap-making</a>.</li></ol> <p>“Suburbs, then, were socially and economically inferior to cities when wind, muscle, and water were the prime movers of civilisation… Even the word suburb suggested inferior manners, narrowness of view, and physical squalor."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198519_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198519-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transportation_innovation">Transportation innovation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Transportation innovation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between 1815–1875, however, the situation began to change in the United States. With new transportation alternatives such as the steam ferry, <a href="/wiki/Bus#History" title="Bus">omnibus</a>, the commuter railroad, the <a href="/wiki/Horsecar" title="Horsecar">horsecar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Elevated_railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Elevated railroad">elevated railroad</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Cable_car_(railway)" title="Cable car (railway)">cable car</a> came "an exodus that would turn cities inside out and inaugurate a new pattern of suburban affluence and centre despair."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198520_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198520-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">steam locomotive</a> in the mid 19th century provided the wealthy with the means to live in bucolic surroundings, to socialize in <a href="/wiki/Country_clubs" class="mw-redirect" title="Country clubs">country clubs</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198597–99_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198597–99-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and still commute to work downtown; these were the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Main_Line#History" title="Philadelphia Main Line">railroad suburbs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985Chapter_5:_The_Main_Lite_Elite_Suburbs_and_Commuter_Railroads,_p._87-102_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985Chapter_5:_The_Main_Lite_Elite_Suburbs_and_Commuter_Railroads,_p._87-102-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, "railroad commuting was not only expensive but… the steam engine generated speed slowly [so] that railroad suburbs were usually discontinuous and separated by …open space."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985101_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985101-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> came the Age of the Trolley <a href="/wiki/Streetcar_suburb" title="Streetcar suburb">bringing commuting to the middle class</a> and expanding the city. The "extraordinary prosperity and vitality of most urban cores between 1890 and 1950 cannot be understood without reference to the streetcar systems… by the turn of the century, a 'new city,' segregated by class and economic function and encompassing an area triple the size of the older walking city had clearly emerged… [so that] by 1904 inventor <a href="/wiki/Frank_Sprague" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Sprague">Frank Sprague</a> could reasonably claim: "The electric railway has become the most potent factor in our modern life."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985113,_115_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985113,_115-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "In 1890, the number of passengers carried on American street railways (including cable and elevated systems) was more than two billion per year, or more than twice that of the rest of the world combined."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985111_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985111-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tracks "radiated out from the centre like spokes [forcing] anyone using public transit to rely on the <a href="/wiki/Central_business_district" title="Central business district">central business district</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985113–114_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985113–114-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The influence of the <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> was initially slow, so that even "as late as 1918 the <a href="/wiki/War_Industries_Board" title="War Industries Board">War Industries Board</a> could regard the shutdown of the entire [automobile] industry as a mere inconvenience."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985159_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985159-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, "of even greater significance …was the <a href="/wiki/Truck" title="Truck">truck</a> [which] could do four times the work of a horse-drawn wagon which took up the same street space."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985183_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985183-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Building roads to facilitate the "removal of horses from cities was widely considered a proper object for the expenditure of public funds. Indeed, the private car was initially regarded as the very salvation of the city, a clean and efficient alternative to the old-fashioned, manure-befouled, odoriferous, space-intensive horse."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985163–164_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985163–164-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effort was so successful that "as <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Lewis" title="Sinclair Lewis">Sinclair Lewis</a>' popular 1922 novel <a href="/wiki/Babbitt_(novel)" title="Babbitt (novel)">Babbitt</a> indicated, the private car had become no longer a luxury, but a necessity of the American middle class."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985163_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985163-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flight_from_the_city">Flight from the city</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Flight from the city"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"The changing ethnic composition of the urban population also increased middle-class antipathy to the older neighborhoods, as Poles, Italians, Russians, and assorted Eastern and Southern Europeans, most of them <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> or Catholic, poured into the industrialised areas after 1880. Although only one-third of all Americans lived in cities in 1890, two-thirds of all immigrants did. By 1910, about 80 percent of all new arrivals at <a href="/wiki/Ellis_Island" title="Ellis Island">Ellis Island</a> were remaining in cities, as were 72 percent of all of those '<a href="/wiki/Foreign_born" title="Foreign born">foreign born</a>'. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, mayors in New York, Chicago, and Boston were being elected by immigrant votes, and the possibility was raised that urban officials might be unwilling to use the police against <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">labor radicals</a>, most of whom came from Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198570_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198570-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson examined the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>'s contributions to public housing and concludes that "the result, if not the intent, of the public housing program of the United States was to segregate the races, to concentrate the disadvantaged in inner cities, and to reinforce the image of suburbia as a place of refuge for the problems of race, crime, and poverty."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985219_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985219-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">grading certain areas based on "desirability"</a> i.e., more recently constructed and lacking of minorities, the government, through <a href="/wiki/Home_Owners_Loan_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Owners Loan Corporation">Home Owners Loan Corporation</a> encouraged middle class white flight from the city. Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration" title="Federal Housing Administration">Federal Housing Administration</a> "helped to turn the building industry against the minority and inner-city housing market, and its policies supported the income and inner-city housing market." FHA avoided providing mortgages to those in ethnic or minority neighborhoods, further promoting <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>. </p><p>"To this fear were added specific programs to tax property so as to create public improvements and jobs to benefit working class voters. The observation of <a href="/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce" title="James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce">Lord Bryce</a> that municipal government was 'The conspicuous failure of the United States' was often quoted. The import of such projections was not lost on middle-class families, who often took the opportunity that low price and good transportation afforded to move beyond city jurisdictions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198570_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198570-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lure_of_the_suburbs">Lure of the suburbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lure of the suburbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Throughout the nineteenth century… American cities annexed adjacent land and grew steadily… the predominant view in the nineteenth century was the doctrine of forcible <a href="/wiki/Municipal_annexation_in_the_United_States" title="Municipal annexation in the United States">annexation</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985138,_147_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985138,_147-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However that would change toward the end of the century: "the <a href="/wiki/Brookline-Boston_annexation_debate_of_1873" class="mw-redirect" title="Brookline-Boston annexation debate of 1873">first really significant defeat</a> for the consolidation movement came when <a href="/wiki/Brookline,_Massachusetts" title="Brookline, Massachusetts">Brookline</a> spurned <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> in 1874. [Thereafter] virtually every other Eastern and Middle Western city was rebuffed by wealthy and independent suburbs."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985149_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985149-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the turn of the 19th century, a middle class expectation of having residential space had emerged, which Jackson attributes to work of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Downing" title="Andrew Jackson Downing">Andrew Jackson Downing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calvert_Vaux" title="Calvert Vaux">Calvert Vaux</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Catharine_Beecher" title="Catharine Beecher">Catharine Beecher</a>. "Family came to be a personal bastion against society, a place of refuge, free from outside control," with "the emerging values of domesticity, privacy, and isolation reach[ing] fullest development in the United States. The big, mean city, with its <a href="/wiki/Confidence_trick" class="mw-redirect" title="Confidence trick">confidence men</a> and squalor, did not promise the same haven as the suburbs. The "ideal house came to be viewed as resting in the middle of a <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lawn" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the lawn">manicured lawn or picturesque garden</a>." </p><p>In 1833 in <a href="/wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire" title="Great Chicago Fire">newly rebuilt Chicago</a>, a new type of building appeared, '<a href="/wiki/Framing_(construction)#Balloon_framing" title="Framing (construction)">balloon frame</a>,' that "would absorb most of the population growth of the United States over the next one hundred and fifty years." A "new structure could be erected more quickly by two men than the [European-style] heavy <a href="/wiki/Timber_framing" title="Timber framing">timber frame</a> by twenty… [so that] many poorly paid immigrant groups had homeownership rates as high [as] white Americans."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985125–126_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985125–126-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "For the first time in the history of the world, middle class families in the late nineteenth century could reasonably expect to buy a detached home on an accessible lot… the real price of shelter in the United States was lower than in the Old World."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985136_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985136-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intended to spur housing construction after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">President Roosevelt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration" title="Federal Housing Administration">Federal Housing Administration</a> established minimum standards for home construction<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985204_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985204-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and low down-payment amounts, and home loans amortized for the full-term of 20 to 30 years. Before that, "first mortgages were limited to one-of or two-thirds of the appraised value of the property",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985204_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985204-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and loans had to be renewed every five years and interest rates were subject to revision every renewal. </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, encouraged by the emergence of new cities of wartime production and <a href="/wiki/VA_loan" title="VA loan">government assistance for veterans</a>, increasing numbers of Americans could afford to buy homes. Given the massive growth of affordable dwellings accessible by the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">highway</a> and train, families flocked to planned towns such as <a href="/wiki/Levittown,_New_York" title="Levittown, New York">Levittown</a> where all the details such as schools and public works were already in place so that builders could erect as many as thirty homes a day to meet demand. Most importantly, the decentralization of post-World War II American cities led to the self-sufficiency of the suburbs around the urban core, both as the place of work and place of dwelling. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conclusion">Conclusion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Conclusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Recent changes in Europe support the thesis that suburbanization is a common human aspiration and its achievement is dependent upon technology and affluence. Since <a href="/wiki/William_Levitt" title="William Levitt">William Levitt</a> erected his first houses outside <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1965,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the European landscape has become littered with all the trappings of suburban America."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985303_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985303-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "For better or worse, the American suburb is a remarkable and probably lasting achievement."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985305_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985305-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, due to the energy inefficiency of the suburb, Jackson believed that the "long process of suburbanization, which has been operative in the United States since about 1815, will slow over the next two decades and that a new kind of spatial equilibrium will result early in the next century."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985297_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985297-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards">Awards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Crabgrass Frontier</i> won both the <a href="/wiki/Bancroft_Prize" title="Bancroft Prize">Bancroft Prize</a>, given by <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> for the year's best work of history, and the <a href="/wiki/Francis_Parkman_Prize" title="Francis Parkman Prize">Francis Parkman Prize</a>, awarded by the Society of American Historians.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_research_on_the_subject">Other research on the subject</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other research on the subject"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other writers and academics have written on the subject of the increasing suburbanization of the USA. For instance, some social scientists point out the role played by racism. During World War I, the massive migration of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> from the South resulted in an even greater residential shift toward suburban areas. The cities became seen as dangerous, crime-infested areas, while the suburbs were seen as safe places to live and raise a family, leading to a social trend known in some parts of the world as <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>. This phenomenon runs counter to much of the rest of the world, where slums mostly exist outside the city, rather than within them. With the increasing population of the older, more established suburban areas, many of the problems which were once seen as purely urban ones have manifested themselves there as well. These social scientists suggest that the historical processes of suburbanization and decentralization are instances of <a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white privilege</a> that have contributed to contemporary patterns of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">environmental racism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One team of writers have analysed the building of the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a>, and have concluded that it and other policies of the Federal government played a significant role in American suburbanization. The building of an efficient network of roads, highways and superhighways, and the underwriting of mortgages for suburban one-family homes, had an enormous influence on the pace of suburbanization. In effect, the government was encouraging the transfer of the middle-class population out of the inner cities and into the suburbs, sometimes with devastating effects on the viability of the city centres.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some argue that the effect of Interstate Highway Systems on suburbanization is overstated. Researchers holding this view believe city centre populations would have declined even in the absence of highway systems, contending that suburbanization is a long-standing and almost universal process. They primarily argue that as incomes rise, most people want the range and choice offered by automobiles. In addition, there is no significant evidence directly linking the development of highway systems to declining urban populations.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_T._Jackson" title="Kenneth T. Jackson">Jackson, Kenneth T.</a> (1985). <i><a href="/wiki/Crabgrass_Frontier:_The_Suburbanization_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States">Crabgrass frontier: The suburbanization of the United States</a></i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-504983-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-504983-7"><bdi>0-19-504983-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11785435">11785435</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crabgrass+frontier%3A+The+suburbanization+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11785435&rft.isbn=0-19-504983-7&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198514–16-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198514–16_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, pp. 14–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198519-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198519_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198520-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198520_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198597–99-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198597–99_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, pp. 97–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985Chapter_5:_The_Main_Lite_Elite_Suburbs_and_Commuter_Railroads,_p._87-102-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985Chapter_5:_The_Main_Lite_Elite_Suburbs_and_Commuter_Railroads,_p._87-102_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, Chapter 5: The Main Lite Elite Suburbs and Commuter Railroads, p. 87-102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985101-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985101_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985113,_115-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985113,_115_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, pp. 113, 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985111-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985111_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985113–114-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985113–114_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, pp. 113–114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985159-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985159_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985183-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985183_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985163–164-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985163–164_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, pp. 163–164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2007" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_A._Morris" title="Eric A. Morris">Morris, Eric A.</a> (Spring 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140124204000/http://www.uctc.net/access/30/Access%2030%20-%2002%20-%20Horse%20Power.pdf">"From horse power to horsepower"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Access Magazine</i>. No. 30. Berkeley, California: University of California Transportation Center. pp. 2–9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uctc.net/access/30/Access%2030%20-%2002%20-%20Horse%20Power.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 24 January 2014. p. 6: <q>In New York in 1900, 200 persons were killed by horses and horse-drawn vehicles. This contrasts with 344 auto-related fatalities in New York in 2003</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Access+Magazine&rft.atitle=From+horse+power+to+horsepower&rft.ssn=spring&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=2-9&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Eric+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uctc.net%2Faccess%2F30%2FAccess%252030%2520-%252002%2520-%2520Horse%2520Power.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985163-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985163_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson198570-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198570_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson198570_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985219-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985219_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985138,_147-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985138,_147_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, pp. 138, 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985149-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985149_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985125–126-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985125–126_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, pp. 125–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985136-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985136_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985204-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985204_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985204_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/archive/6833425/france-a-lesson-from-levitt/">"France: A Lesson from Levitt"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. 10 December 1965. <q>New European housing often looks elegant from the outside, but much of it is backward in kitchen equipment, bathroom layout, floor plans, heating, plumbing and lighting—the innards that make the shell truly livable. The gap yawns nowhere wider than in France, where 51 years of <a href="/wiki/Rent_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Rent control">rent control</a> have helped create a gargantuan housing shortage. Thus it is not surprising that the French have enthusiastically greeted an invasion by Long Island's William J. Levitt, the U.S.'s biggest homebuilder (fiscal 1965 sales: $60 million). More than 60,000 Frenchmen have poured out of Paris to gape at Levitt's recently opened American-style subdivision in suburban <a href="/wiki/Le_Mesnil-Saint-Denis" title="Le Mesnil-Saint-Denis">Le Mesnil-Saint-Denis</a> (pop. 2,000)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=France%3A+A+Lesson+from+Levitt&rft.date=1965-12-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2Farchive%2F6833425%2Ffrance-a-lesson-from-levitt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985303-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985303_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985305-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985305_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1985297-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1985297_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1985">Jackson 1985</a>, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann-Haupt,_Christopher1986" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lehmann-Haupt" title="Christopher Lehmann-Haupt">Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher</a> (17 April 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/17/books/books-of-the-times-835586.html">"Books of the Times: Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Books+of+the+Times%3A+Crabgrass+Frontier%3A+The+Suburbanization+of+the+United+States.&rft.date=1986-04-17&rft.au=Lehmann-Haupt%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F04%2F17%2Fbooks%2Fbooks-of-the-times-835586.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulido2000" class="citation journal cs1">Pulido, Laura (March 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10214/1833/30-Pulido.pdf?sequence=1">"Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege and Urban Development in Southern California"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Annals of the Association of American Geographers</i>. <b>90</b> (1): 12–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0004-5608.00182">10.1111/0004-5608.00182</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-5608">0004-5608</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1515377">1515377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Environmental+Racism%3A+White+Privilege+and+Urban+Development+in+Southern+California&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-40&rft.date=2000-03&rft.issn=0004-5608&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1515377%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0004-5608.00182&rft.aulast=Pulido&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fatrium.lib.uoguelph.ca%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10214%2F1833%2F30-Pulido.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiewelBrownMorris1989" class="citation journal cs1">Wiewel, Wim; Brown, Bridget; Morris, Marya (May 1989). "The Linkage between Regional and Neighborhood Development". <i>Economic Development Quarterly</i>. <b>3</b> (2): 94–110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124248900300203">10.1177/089124248900300203</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0891-2424">0891-2424</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Development+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Linkage+between+Regional+and+Neighborhood+Development&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=94-110&rft.date=1989-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F089124248900300203&rft.issn=0891-2424&rft.aulast=Wiewel&rft.aufirst=Wim&rft.au=Brown%2C+Bridget&rft.au=Morris%2C+Marya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxGordonRedfearn2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cox, Wendell; Gordon, Peter; Redfearn, Christian L. (January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econjwatch.org/articles/highway-penetration-of-central-cities-not-a-major-cause-of-suburbanization">"Highway Penetration of Central Cities: Not a Major Cause of Suburbanization"</a>. <i>Econ Journal Watch</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 32–45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Econ+Journal+Watch&rft.atitle=Highway+Penetration+of+Central+Cities%3A+Not+a+Major+Cause+of+Suburbanization&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-45&rft.date=2008-01&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Wendell&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Peter&rft.au=Redfearn%2C+Christian+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feconjwatch.org%2Farticles%2Fhighway-penetration-of-central-cities-not-a-major-cause-of-suburbanization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_journal_reviews">Academic journal reviews</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Academic journal reviews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1986" class="citation journal cs1">Arnold, Joseph L. (1986). "Review: Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States". <i>The Public Historian</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 148–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3377446">10.2307/3377446</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3377446">3377446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Public+Historian&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Crabgrass+Frontier%3A+The+Suburbanization+of+the+United+States&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=148-151&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3377446&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3377446%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Joseph+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell1986" class="citation journal cs1">Bell, Thomas L. (1986). 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"Review: The Suburban Cliche". <i>Journal of Social History</i>. <b>28</b> (3): 643–658. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjsh%2F28.3.643">10.1353/jsh/28.3.643</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3788469">3788469</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=Review%3A+The+Suburban+Cliche&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=643-658&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjsh%2F28.3.643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3788469%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wunsch&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrabgrass+Frontier" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&oldid=1255021401">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crabgrass_Frontier&oldid=1255021401</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1985_non-fiction_books" title="Category:1985 non-fiction books">1985 non-fiction books</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_history_books" title="Category:American history books">American history books</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_history_books" title="Category:20th-century history books">20th-century history books</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Urban_planning_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Urban planning in the United States">Urban planning in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_urban_planning" title="Category:History of urban planning">History of urban planning</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oxford_University_Press_books" title="Category:Oxford University Press books">Oxford University Press books</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bancroft_Prize%E2%80%93winning_works" title="Category:Bancroft Prize–winning works">Bancroft Prize–winning works</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_April_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from April 2022">Use dmy dates from April 2022</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 2 November 2024, at 19:12<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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