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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Regional variation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cervical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cervical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Cervical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cervical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thoracic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thoracic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Thoracic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thoracic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lumbar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lumbar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Lumbar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lumbar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sacral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sacral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Sacral</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sacral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coccygeal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coccygeal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.5</span> <span>Coccygeal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coccygeal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Other animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vertebra</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">75 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werwel" title="Werwel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Werwel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A9_(%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AD)" title="فقرة (تشريح) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فقرة (تشريح)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A6%DC%A9%DC%AA%DC%90" title="ܦܩܪܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܦܩܪܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A8rt%C3%A8bra" title="Vèrtèbra – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Vèrtèbra" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99q%C9%99r%C9%99" title="Fəqərə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fəqərə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE" title="কশেরুকা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কশেরুকা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chek-chui-kut" title="Chek-chui-kut – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chek-chui-kut" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%82%D2%A1%D0%B0" title="Умыртҡа – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Умыртҡа" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Пазванок – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пазванок" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Прешлен – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Прешлен" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C4%8Dmeni_pr%C5%A1ljen" title="Kičmeni pršljen – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kičmeni pršljen" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A8rtebra" title="Vèrtebra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vèrtebra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%83%D1%80%C4%83%D0%BC_%D1%88%C4%83%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B8" title="Çурăм шăммин сыппи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çурăм шăммин сыппи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obratel" title="Obratel – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Obratel" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertibra" title="Fertibra – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Fertibra" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryghvirvel" title="Ryghvirvel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ryghvirvel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirbel_(Anatomie)" title="Wirbel (Anatomie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wirbel (Anatomie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCli" title="Lüli – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lüli" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rtebra" title="Vértebra – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vértebra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebro" title="Vertebro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vertebro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orno" title="Orno – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Orno" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%87_(%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%86)" title="مهره (بدن) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهره (بدن)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vert%C3%A8bre" title="Vertèbre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vertèbre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veirteabra" title="Veirteabra – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Veirteabra" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Vertebra" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rtebra" title="Vértebra – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Vértebra" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%99%EC%B6%94%EB%BC%88%ED%8C%A8%EC%9E%84" title="척추뼈패임 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="척추뼈패임" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="कशेरुका – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कशेरुका" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang_punggung" title="Tulang punggung – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tulang punggung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vertebra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94_(%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94)" title="חוליה (אנטומיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חוליה (אנטומיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%82%D2%9B%D0%B0" title="Омыртқа – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Омыртқа" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A8t%C3%A8b" title="Vètèb – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Vètèb" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movik" title="Movik – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Movik" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Омуртка – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Омуртка" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Vertebra" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrieme%C4%BCi" title="Skriemeļi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Skriemeļi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wierbel" title="Wierbel – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Wierbel" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuburo_slanksteliai" title="Stuburo slanksteliai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Stuburo slanksteliai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurvel" title="Wurvel – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Wurvel" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mok%C3%BAwa_mwa_mok%C9%94ng%C9%94" title="Mokúwa mwa mokɔngɔ – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mokúwa mwa mokɔngɔ" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csigolya" title="Csigolya – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csigolya" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Прешлен – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Прешлен" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81" title="കശേരു – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കശേരു" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87" title="मणके – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मणके" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang_belakang" title="Tulang belakang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tulang belakang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C4%83ng-c%C3%A9k-g%C3%A1uk" title="Piăng-cék-gáuk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Piăng-cék-gáuk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wervel_(anatomie)" title="Wervel (anatomie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wervel (anatomie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8E%E9%AA%A8" title="椎骨 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="椎骨" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechknaaken" title="Rechknaaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Rechknaaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duguggurittii" title="Duguggurittii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Duguggurittii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umurtqa" title="Umurtqa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Umurtqa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%99g" title="Kręg – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kręg" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rtebra" title="Vértebra – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vértebra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vertebra" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Позвонок – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Позвонок" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Vertebra" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stavec" title="Stavec – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stavec" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vretence" title="Vretence – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vretence" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricir" title="Ricir – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Ricir" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C5%A1ljen" title="Pršljen – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Pršljen" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C4%8Dmeni_pr%C5%A1ljen" title="Kičmeni pršljen – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kičmeni pršljen" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Vertebra" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikama" title="Nikama – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nikama" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryggkota" title="Ryggkota – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ryggkota" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B8" title="వెన్నుపూస – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వెన్నుపూస" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D2%B3%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD)" title="Муҳра (бадан) – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Муҳра (бадан)" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omur" title="Omur – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Omur" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%86%D1%96" title="Хребці – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хребці" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndokgizlungz" title="Ndokgizlungz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Ndokgizlungz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronzoxh" title="Cronzoxh – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Cronzoxh" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8E%E9%AA%A8" title="椎骨 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="椎骨" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8E%E9%AA%A8" title="椎骨 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="椎骨" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8E%E9%AA%A8" title="椎骨 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="椎骨" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang_geger" title="Tulang geger – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Tulang geger" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q180323#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Vertebra_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Vertebra (disambiguation)">Vertebra (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:whitesmoke">Vertebra</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertebra_Superior_View-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Vertebra_Superior_View-en.svg/200px-Vertebra_Superior_View-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Vertebra_Superior_View-en.svg/300px-Vertebra_Superior_View-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Vertebra_Superior_View-en.svg/400px-Vertebra_Superior_View-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="364" data-file-height="222" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A typical vertebra, superior view</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertebra_Posterolateral-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Vertebra_Posterolateral-en.svg/240px-Vertebra_Posterolateral-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Vertebra_Posterolateral-en.svg/360px-Vertebra_Posterolateral-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Vertebra_Posterolateral-en.svg/480px-Vertebra_Posterolateral-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="409" data-file-height="279" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A section of the <a href="/wiki/Human_vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Human vertebral column">human vertebral column</a>, showing multiple vertebrae in a left posterolateral view.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal column">Spinal column</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>vertebra</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/02.2.01.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A02.2.01.001</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=1011">1011</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma9914">9914</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_bone" title="Anatomical terms of bone">Anatomical terms of bone</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180323" class="extiw" title="d:Q180323">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Each <b>vertebra</b> (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: <b>vertebrae</b>) is an <a href="/wiki/Irregular_bone" title="Irregular bone">irregular bone</a> with a complex structure composed of <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Hyaline_cartilage" title="Hyaline cartilage">hyaline cartilage</a>, that make up the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a> or spine, of <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>. The proportions of the vertebrae differ according to their spinal segment and the particular species. </p><p>The basic configuration of a vertebra varies; the bone is the body, and the central part of the body is the centrum. The upper and lower surfaces of the vertebra body give attachment to the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral discs</a>. The posterior part of a vertebra forms a <b>vertebral arch</b>, in eleven parts, consisting of two pedicles (<b>pedicle of vertebral arch</b>), two laminae, and seven <a href="/wiki/Process_(anatomy)" title="Process (anatomy)">processes</a>. The laminae give attachment to the <a href="/wiki/Ligamenta_flava" title="Ligamenta flava">ligamenta flava</a> (ligaments of the spine). There are vertebral notches formed from the shape of the pedicles, which form the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Intervertebral foramina">intervertebral foramina</a> when the vertebrae <a href="/wiki/Articulation_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Articulation (anatomy)">articulate</a>. These foramina are the entry and exit conduits for the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">spinal nerves</a>. The body of the vertebra and the vertebral arch form the vertebral foramen, the larger, central opening that accommodates the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a>, which encloses and protects the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. </p><p>Vertebrae articulate with each other to give strength and flexibility to the spinal column, and the shape at their back and front aspects determines the range of movement. Structurally, vertebrae are essentially alike across the vertebrate species, with the greatest difference seen between an <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">aquatic animal</a> and other vertebrate animals. As such, vertebrates take their name from the vertebrae that compose the vertebral column. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the human <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a>, the size of the vertebrae varies according to placement in the vertebral column, spinal loading, posture and pathology. Along the length of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">spine</a>, the vertebrae change to accommodate different needs related to stress and mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each vertebra is an irregular bone. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg/240px-ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg/360px-ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg/480px-ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Side view of vertebrae</figcaption></figure> <p>A typical vertebra has a <b>body</b> (<b>vertebral body</b>), which consists of a large anterior middle portion called the <b>centrum</b> (<b>vertebral centrum</b>, plural <i>centra</i>) and a posterior <b>vertebral arch</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dartmouth_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dartmouth-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also called a <b>neural arch</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The body is composed of <a href="/wiki/Cancellous_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancellous bone">cancellous bone</a>, which is the spongy type of <a href="/wiki/Osseous_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Osseous tissue">osseous tissue</a>, whose microanatomy has been specifically studied within the pedicle bones.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This cancellous bone is in turn, covered by a thin coating of <a href="/wiki/Cortical_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical bone">cortical bone</a> (or compact bone), the hard and dense type of osseous tissue. The vertebral arch and processes have thicker coverings of cortical bone. The upper and lower surfaces of the body of the vertebra are flattened and rough in order to give attachment to the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_discs" class="mw-redirect" title="Intervertebral discs">intervertebral discs</a>. These surfaces are the vertebral <b>endplates</b> which are in direct contact with the intervertebral discs and form the joint. The endplates are formed from a thickened layer of the cancellous bone of the vertebral body, the top layer being more dense. The endplates function to contain the adjacent discs, to evenly spread the applied loads, and to provide anchorage for the <a href="/wiki/Collagen_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Collagen fibers">collagen fibers</a> of the disc. They also act as a semi-permeable interface for the exchange of water and solutes.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:718_Vertebra-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/718_Vertebra-en.svg/240px-718_Vertebra-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/718_Vertebra-en.svg/360px-718_Vertebra-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/718_Vertebra-en.svg/480px-718_Vertebra-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy of a vertebra</figcaption></figure> <p>The vertebral arch is formed by pedicles and laminae. Two pedicles extend from the sides of the vertebral body to join the body to the arch. The pedicles are short thick <a href="/wiki/Process_(anatomy)" title="Process (anatomy)">processes</a> that extend, one from each side, posteriorly, from the junctions of the posteriolateral surfaces of the centrum, on its upper surface. From each pedicle a broad plate, a <b>lamina</b>, projects backward and medially to join and complete the vertebral arch and form the posterior border of the vertebral foramen, which completes the triangle of the vertebral foramen.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The upper surfaces of the laminae are rough to give attachment to the <a href="/wiki/Ligamenta_flava" title="Ligamenta flava">ligamenta flava</a>. These ligaments connect the laminae of adjacent vertebra along the length of the spine from the level of the <a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">second cervical vertebra</a>. Above and below the pedicles are shallow depressions called <b>vertebral notches</b> (<i>superior</i> and <i>inferior</i>). When the vertebrae <a href="/wiki/Articulation_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Articulation (anatomy)">articulate</a> the notches align with those on adjacent vertebrae and these form the openings of the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Intervertebral foramina">intervertebral foramina</a>. The foramina allow the entry and exit of the spinal nerves from each vertebra, together with associated blood vessels. The articulating vertebrae provide a strong pillar of support for the body. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Processes">Processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are seven processes projecting from the vertebra: </p> <ul><li>one <b>spinous process</b></li> <li>two <b>transverse processes</b></li> <li>four <b><a href="/wiki/Articular_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Articular processes">articular processes</a></b></li></ul> <p>A major part of a vertebra is a backward extending spinous process (sometimes called the neural spine) which projects centrally.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process points <a href="/wiki/Dorsally" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsally">dorsally</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caudally" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudally">caudally</a> from the junction of the laminae.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spinous process serves to attach <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ligament" title="Ligament">ligaments</a>. </p><p>The two transverse processes, one on each side of the vertebral body, project laterally from either side at the point where the lamina joins the <a href="/wiki/Pedicle_of_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedicle of vertebral arch">pedicle</a>, between the superior and inferior articular processes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also serve for the attachment of muscles and ligaments, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Intertransverse_ligament" title="Intertransverse ligament">intertransverse ligaments</a>. There is a facet on each of the transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae which articulates with the <a href="/wiki/Tubercle_(rib)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubercle (rib)">tubercle of the rib</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A facet on each side of the thoracic vertebral body articulates with the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of rib">head of the rib</a>. The transverse process of a <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumbar vertebra">lumbar vertebra</a> is also sometimes called the <b>costal</b><sup id="cite_ref-Platzer-42_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Platzer-42-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diab-76_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diab-76-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>costiform process</b><sup id="cite_ref-Tweediep31_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tweediep31-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because it corresponds to a rudimentary rib (<i>costa</i>) which, as opposed to the thorax, is not developed in the lumbar region.<sup id="cite_ref-Tweediep31_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tweediep31-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are superior and inferior <a href="/wiki/Bone#Terminology" title="Bone">articular</a> <a href="/wiki/Facet_joint" title="Facet joint">facet joints</a> on each side of the vertebra, which serve to restrict the range of movement possible. These facets are joined by a thin portion of the vertebral arch called the <a href="/wiki/Pars_interarticularis" title="Pars interarticularis">pars interarticularis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_variation">Regional variation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Regional variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Segments_of_Vertebrae.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Segments_of_Vertebrae.svg/220px-Segments_of_Vertebrae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Segments_of_Vertebrae.svg/330px-Segments_of_Vertebrae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Segments_of_Vertebrae.svg/440px-Segments_of_Vertebrae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Segments of the vertebrae</figcaption></figure> <p>Vertebrae take their names from the regions of the vertebral column that they occupy. There are usually thirty-three vertebrae in the human vertebral column — seven <a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">cervical vertebrae</a>, twelve <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">thoracic vertebrae</a>, five <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">lumbar vertebrae</a>, five fused <a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacral vertebrae</a> forming the <a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacrum</a> and four <a href="/wiki/Coccygeal_vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccygeal vertebrae">coccygeal vertebrae</a>, forming the <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a>. Excluding rare deviations, the total number of vertebrae ranges from 32 to 35.<sup id="cite_ref-cord_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cord-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In about 10% of people, both the total number of pre-sacral vertebrae and the number of vertebrae in individual parts of the spine can vary.<sup id="cite_ref-Hu_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hu-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yan_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yan-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most frequent deviations are eleven (rarely thirteen) thoracic vertebrae, four or six lumbar vertebrae and three or five coccygeal vertebrae (rarely up to seven).<sup id="cite_ref-Yan_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yan-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The regional vertebrae increase in size as they progress downward but become smaller in the coccyx. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cervical">Cervical</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cervical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">Cervical vertebrae</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray84.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Gray84.png/240px-Gray84.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Gray84.png/360px-Gray84.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Gray84.png/480px-Gray84.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="252" /></a><figcaption>A typical cervical vertebra</figcaption></figure> <p>There are seven <a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">cervical vertebrae</a> (but eight cervical <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">spinal nerves</a>), designated C1 through C7. These bones are, in general, small and delicate. Their spinous processes are short (with the exception of C2 and C7, which have palpable spinous processes). C1 is also called the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_(anatomy)" title="Atlas (anatomy)">atlas</a>, and C2 is also called the <a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">axis</a>. The structure of these vertebrae is the reason why the <a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">neck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_head" title="Human head">head</a> have a large range of motion. The <a href="/wiki/Atlanto-occipital_joint" title="Atlanto-occipital joint">atlanto-occipital joint</a> allows the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a> to move up and down, while the <a href="/wiki/Atlanto-axial_joint" title="Atlanto-axial joint">atlanto-axial joint</a> allows the upper neck to twist left and right. The axis also sits upon the first intervertebral disc of the spinal column. </p><p>Cervical vertebrae possess transverse foramina to allow for the vertebral arteries to pass through on their way to the <a href="/wiki/Foramen_magnum" title="Foramen magnum">foramen magnum</a> to end in the <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_Willis" title="Circle of Willis">circle of Willis</a>. These are the smallest, lightest vertebrae and the vertebral foramina are triangular in shape. The spinous processes are short and often <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bifurcation" class="extiw" title="wikt:bifurcation">bifurcated</a> (the spinous process of C7 is not bifurcated, and is substantially longer than that of the other cervical spinous processes).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The atlas differs from the other vertebrae in that it has no body and no spinous process. It has instead a ring-like form, having an anterior and a posterior arch and two lateral masses. At the outside centre points of both arches there is a tubercle, an <b>anterior tubercle</b> and a <b>posterior tubercle</b>, for the attachment of muscles. The front surface of the anterior arch is convex and its anterior tubercle gives attachment to the <a href="/wiki/Longus_colli_muscle" title="Longus colli muscle">longus colli muscle</a>. The posterior tubercle is a <a href="/wiki/Rudiment_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudiment (biology)">rudimentary</a> spinous process and gives attachment to the <a href="/wiki/Rectus_capitis_posterior_minor_muscle" title="Rectus capitis posterior minor muscle">rectus capitis posterior minor muscle</a>. The spinous process is small so as not to interfere with the movement between the atlas and the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a>. On the under surface is a facet for articulation with the <a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)#Dens" title="Axis (anatomy)">dens</a> of the axis. </p><p>Specific to the cervical vertebra is the <b>transverse foramen</b> (also known as <i>foramen transversarium</i>). This is an opening on each of the transverse processes which gives passage to the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_artery" title="Vertebral artery">vertebral artery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_vein" title="Vertebral vein">vein</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nerve plexus</a>. On the cervical vertebrae other than the atlas, the anterior and posterior tubercles are on either side of the transverse foramen on each transverse process. The anterior tubercle on the sixth cervical vertebra is called the <b>carotid tubercle</b> because it separates the <a href="/wiki/Carotid_artery" title="Carotid artery">carotid artery</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_artery" title="Vertebral artery">vertebral artery</a>. </p><p>There is a hook-shaped <b>uncinate process</b> on the side edges of the top surface of the bodies of the third to the seventh cervical vertebrae and of the first thoracic vertebra. Together with the vertebral disc, this uncinate process prevents a vertebra from sliding backward off the vertebra below it and limits lateral flexion (side-bending). <a href="/wiki/Luschka%27s_joints" title="Luschka's joints">Luschka's joints</a> involve the vertebral uncinate processes. </p><p>The spinous process on C7 is distinctively long and gives the name <a href="/wiki/Vertebra_prominens" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebra prominens">vertebra prominens</a> to this vertebra. Also a <a href="/wiki/Cervical_rib" title="Cervical rib">cervical rib</a> can develop from C7 as an <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_variation" title="Anatomical variation">anatomical variation</a>. </p><p>The term <b>cervicothoracic</b> is often used to refer to the cervical and thoracic vertebrae together, and sometimes also their surrounding areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thoracic">Thoracic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Thoracic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">Thoracic vertebrae</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray82.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Gray82.png/240px-Gray82.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Gray82.png/360px-Gray82.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Gray82.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="287" /></a><figcaption>A typical thoracic vertebra</figcaption></figure> <p>The twelve <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">thoracic vertebrae</a> and their transverse processes have surfaces that <a href="/wiki/Bone#Terminology" title="Bone">articulate</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">ribs</a>. Some rotation can occur between the thoracic vertebrae, but their connection with the <a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">rib cage</a> prevents much <i>flexion</i> or other movement. They may also be known as "dorsal vertebrae" in the human context. </p><p>The vertebral bodies are roughly heart-shaped and are about as wide anterio-posteriorly as they are in the transverse dimension. Vertebral foramina are roughly circular in shape. </p><p>The top surface of the first thoracic vertebra has a hook-shaped uncinate process, just like the cervical vertebrae. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column#Vertebrae" title="Vertebral column">thoracolumbar division</a> refers to the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae together, and sometimes also their surrounding areas. </p><p>The thoracic vertebrae attach to ribs and so have articular facets specific to them; these are the <a href="/wiki/Superior_costal_facet" title="Superior costal facet">superior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transverse_costal_facet" title="Transverse costal facet">transverse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inferior_costal_facet" title="Inferior costal facet">inferior costal facets</a>. As the vertebrae progress down the spine they increase in size to match up with the adjoining lumbar section. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lumbar">Lumbar</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lumbar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">Lumbar vertebrae</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray106.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Gray106.png/200px-Gray106.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Gray106.png/300px-Gray106.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Gray106.png 2x" data-file-width="344" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption>Lumbar vertebra showing mammillary processes</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray93.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gray93.png/240px-Gray93.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gray93.png/360px-Gray93.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gray93.png/480px-Gray93.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="357" /></a><figcaption>A typical lumbar vertebra</figcaption></figure> <p>The five <a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">lumbar vertebrae</a> are the largest of the vertebrae, their robust construction being necessary for supporting greater weight than the other vertebrae. They allow significant <i>flexion</i>, <i>extension</i> and moderate lateral flexion (side-bending). The discs between these vertebrae create a natural <a href="/wiki/Lumbar" title="Lumbar">lumbar</a> <a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">lordosis</a> (a spinal curvature that is concave posteriorly).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This is due to the difference in thickness between the front and back parts of the intervertebral discs. </p><p>The lumbar vertebrae are located between the ribcage and the pelvis and are the largest of the vertebrae. The pedicles are strong, as are the laminae, and the spinous process is thick and broad. The vertebral foramen is large and triangular. The transverse processes are long and narrow and three tubercles can be seen on them. These are a lateral <b>costiform process</b>, a <b>mammillary process</b> and an <b>accessory process</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Postacchini99p19_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Postacchini99p19-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The superior, or upper tubercle is the mammillary process which connects with the superior articular process. The <a href="/wiki/Multifidus_muscle" title="Multifidus muscle">multifidus muscle</a> attaches to the mammillary process and this muscle extends through the length of the vertebral column, giving support. The inferior, or lower tubercle is the accessory process and this is found at the back part of the base of the transverse process. The term <b>lumbosacral</b> is often used to refer to the lumbar and sacral vertebrae together, and sometimes includes their surrounding areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sacral">Sacral</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sacral"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray95.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gray95.png/140px-Gray95.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gray95.png/210px-Gray95.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gray95.png/280px-Gray95.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Sacrum</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">Sacrum</a></div> <p>There are five <b>sacral vertebrae</b> (S1–S5) which are fused in maturity, into one large bone, the <a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacrum</a>, with no <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral discs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sacrum with the <a href="/wiki/Ilium_(bone)" title="Ilium (bone)">ilium</a> forms a <a href="/wiki/Sacroiliac_joint" title="Sacroiliac joint">sacroiliac joint</a> on each side of the <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a>, which articulates with the <a href="/wiki/Hips" class="mw-redirect" title="Hips">hips</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coccygeal">Coccygeal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Coccygeal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">Coccyx</a></div> <p>The last three to five <b>coccygeal vertebrae</b> (but usually four) (Co1–Co5) make up the tailbone or <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CNN-20240323_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20240323-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are no <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral discs</a>. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray65.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Development of vertebrae"><img alt="Development of vertebrae" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray65.png/360px-Gray65.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray65.png/540px-Gray65.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Gray65.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption>Development of vertebrae</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Somite" title="Somite">Somites</a> form in the early <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> and some of these develop into sclerotomes. The sclerotomes form the vertebrae as well as the rib cartilage and part of the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">occipital bone</a>. From their initial location within the somite, the sclerotome cells migrate medially toward the <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a>. These cells meet the sclerotome cells from the other side of the <a href="/wiki/Paraxial_mesoderm" title="Paraxial mesoderm">paraxial mesoderm</a>. The lower half of one sclerotome fuses with the upper half of the adjacent one to form each vertebral body.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this vertebral body, sclerotome cells move dorsally and surround the developing <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, forming the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral arch">vertebral arch</a>. Other cells move distally to the costal processes of <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">thoracic vertebrae</a> to form the ribs.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Functions of vertebrae include: </p> <ol><li>Support of the vertebrae function in the skeletomuscular system by forming the vertebral column to support the body</li> <li>Protection. Vertebrae contain a <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_foramen" title="Vertebral foramen">vertebral foramen</a> for the passage of the spinal canal and its enclosed <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> and covering <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</a>. They also afford sturdy protection for the spinal cord. The upper and lower surfaces of the centrum are flattened and rough in order to give attachment to the intervertebral discs.</li> <li>Movement. The vertebrae also provide the openings, the intervertebral foramina which allow the entry and exit of the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal nerves">spinal nerves</a>. Similarly to the surfaces of the centrum, the upper and lower surfaces of the fronts of the laminae are flattened and rough to give attachment to the <a href="/wiki/Ligamenta_flava" title="Ligamenta flava">ligamenta flava</a>. Working together in the vertebral column their sections provide controlled movement and flexibility.</li> <li>Feeding of the intervertebral discs through the reflex (hyaline ligament) plate that separates the cancellous bone of the vertebral body from each disk</li></ol> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinal_cord_direv.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The spinal cord nested in the vertebral column."><img alt="The spinal cord nested in the vertebral column." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spinal_cord_direv.svg/120px-Spinal_cord_direv.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spinal_cord_direv.svg/180px-Spinal_cord_direv.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spinal_cord_direv.svg/240px-Spinal_cord_direv.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> nested in the vertebral column.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray298.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Vertebral joint"><img alt="Vertebral joint" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Gray298.png/120px-Gray298.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Gray298.png/180px-Gray298.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Gray298.png/240px-Gray298.png 2x" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="135" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Vertebral joint</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray313.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Costovertebral joint"><img alt="Costovertebral joint" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Gray313.png/120px-Gray313.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Gray313.png/180px-Gray313.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Gray313.png/240px-Gray313.png 2x" data-file-width="566" data-file-height="401" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Costovertebral_joint" class="mw-redirect" title="Costovertebral joint">Costovertebral joint</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray90.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A facet joint between the superior and inferior articular processes (labeled at top and bottom)."><img alt="A facet joint between the superior and inferior articular processes (labeled at top and bottom)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gray90.png/120px-Gray90.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gray90.png/180px-Gray90.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gray90.png/240px-Gray90.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="344" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Facet_joint" title="Facet joint">facet joint</a> between the superior and inferior articular processes (labeled at top and bottom).</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of <a href="/wiki/Congenital_vertebral_anomaly" title="Congenital vertebral anomaly">congenital vertebral anomalies</a>, mostly involving variations in the shape or number of vertebrae, and many of which are unproblematic. Others though can cause compression of the spinal cord. Wedge-shaped vertebrae, called <i>hemivertebrae</i> can cause an angle to form in the spine which can result in the spinal curvature diseases of <a href="/wiki/Kyphosis" title="Kyphosis">kyphosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scoliosis" title="Scoliosis">scoliosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">lordosis</a>. Severe cases can cause spinal cord compression. <a href="/wiki/Block_vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Block vertebrae">Block vertebrae</a> where some vertebrae have become fused can cause problems. <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">Spina bifida</a> can result from the incomplete formation of the vertebral arch. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spondylolysis" title="Spondylolysis">Spondylolysis</a> is a defect in the <a href="/wiki/Pars_interarticularis" title="Pars interarticularis">pars interarticularis</a> of the vertebral arch. In most cases this occurs in the lowest of the lumbar vertebrae (L5), but may also occur in the other lumbar vertebrae, as well as in the thoracic vertebrae. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spinal_disc_herniation" title="Spinal disc herniation">Spinal disc herniation</a>, more commonly called a <i>slipped disc</i>, is the result of a tear in the outer ring (<a href="/wiki/Anulus_fibrosus_disci_intervertebralis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anulus fibrosus disci intervertebralis">anulus fibrosus</a>) of the <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral disc</a>, which lets some of the soft gel-like material, the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_pulposus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus pulposus">nucleus pulposus</a>, bulge out in a <a href="/wiki/Hernia" title="Hernia">hernia</a>. This may be treated by a <a href="/wiki/Minimally-invasive_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimally-invasive procedure">minimally-invasive endoscopic procedure</a> called <a href="/wiki/Tessys_method" title="Tessys method">Tessys method</a>. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Laminectomy" title="Laminectomy">laminectomy</a> is a surgical operation to remove the laminae in order to access the spinal canal.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The removal of just part of a lamina is called a <a href="/wiki/Laminotomy" title="Laminotomy">laminotomy</a>. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Pinched_nerve" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinched nerve">pinched nerve</a> caused by pressure from a disc, vertebra or scar tissue might be remedied by a <a href="/wiki/Foraminotomy" title="Foraminotomy">foraminotomy</a> to broaden the intervertebral foramina and relieve pressure. It can also be caused by a foramina <a href="/wiki/Stenosis" title="Stenosis">stenosis</a>, a narrowing of the nerve opening, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Arthritis" title="Arthritis">arthritis</a>. </p><p>Another condition is <a href="/wiki/Spondylolisthesis" title="Spondylolisthesis">spondylolisthesis</a> when one vertebra slips forward onto another. The reverse of this condition is <a href="/wiki/Retrolisthesis" title="Retrolisthesis">retrolisthesis</a> where one vertebra slips backward onto another. </p><p>The vertebral pedicle is often used as a radiographic marker and entry point in <a href="/wiki/Vertebroplasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebroplasty">vertebroplasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyphoplasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyphoplasty">kyphoplasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_fusion" title="Spinal fusion">spinal fusion</a> procedures. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_foramen" title="Arcuate foramen">arcuate foramen</a> is a common <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_variation" title="Anatomical variation">anatomical variation</a> more frequently seen in females. It is a bony <i>bridge</i> found on the first cervical vertebra, the atlas where it covers the groove for the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_artery" title="Vertebral artery">vertebral artery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Degenerative_disc_disease" title="Degenerative disc disease">Degenerative disc disease</a> is a condition usually associated with ageing in which one or more discs degenerate. This can often be a painfree condition but can also be very painful. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg/200px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg/300px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg/400px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Regions_of_a_vertebral_column.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Regions of vertebrae in the <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goat</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In other animals, the vertebrae take the same regional names except for the coccygeal – in animals with tails, the separate vertebrae are usually called the <a href="/wiki/Caudal_vertebrae" title="Caudal vertebrae">caudal vertebrae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CNN-20240323_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20240323-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the different types of locomotion and support needed between the aquatic and other vertebrates, the vertebrae between them show the most variation, though basic features are shared. The spinous processes which are backward extending are directed upward in animals without an erect stance. These processes can be very large in the larger animals since they attach to the muscles and ligaments of the body. In the <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a>, the vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility. Spinous processes are exaggerated in some animals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Dimetrodon" title="Dimetrodon">Dimetrodon</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Spinosaurus" title="Spinosaurus">Spinosaurus</a></i>, where they form a sailback or finback. </p><p>Vertebrae with saddle-shaped articular surfaces on their bodies, called "heterocoelous", allow vertebrae to flex both vertically and horizontally while preventing twisting motions. Such vertebrae are found in the necks of birds and some turtles.<sup id="cite_ref-kardong288-289_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kardong288-289-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BIOL_352_verts_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/BIOL_352_verts_2.jpg/220px-BIOL_352_verts_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/BIOL_352_verts_2.jpg/330px-BIOL_352_verts_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/BIOL_352_verts_2.jpg/440px-BIOL_352_verts_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="335" /></a><figcaption>An example of procoelous vertebrae dissected from a rattlesnake.</figcaption></figure> <p>"Procoelous" vertebrae feature a spherical protrusion extending from the caudal end of the centrum of one vertebra that fits into a concave socket on the cranial end of the centrum of an adjacent vertebra.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These vertebrae are most often found in <a href="/wiki/Reptiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptiles">reptiles</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but are found in some <a href="/wiki/Amphibians" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibians">amphibians</a> such as frogs.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vertebrae fit together in a ball-and-socket articulation, in which the convex articular feature of an <a href="/wiki/Anterior" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior">anterior</a> vertebra acts as the ball to the socket of a caudal vertebra.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of connection permits a wide range of motion in most directions, while still protecting the underlying nerve cord. The central point of rotation is located at the midline of each centrum, and therefore flexion of the <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a> surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a> does not lead to an opening between vertebrae.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many species, though not in mammals, the <b>cervical vertebrae</b> bear ribs. In many groups, such as <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saurischia" title="Saurischia">saurischian</a> dinosaurs, the cervical ribs are large; in birds, they are small and completely fused to the vertebrae. The <a href="/wiki/Transverse_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse processes">transverse processes</a> of mammals are homologous to the cervical ribs of other <a href="/wiki/Amniotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Amniotes">amniotes</a>. In the whale, the cervical vertebrae are typically fused, an adaptation trading flexibility for stability during swimming.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> except <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">manatees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sloth" title="Sloth">sloths</a> have seven cervical vertebrae, whatever the length of the neck.<sup id="cite_ref-Dierauf_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dierauf-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes seemingly unlikely animals such as the giraffe, the camel, and the blue whale, for example. <a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Birds</a> usually have more cervical vertebrae with most having a highly flexible neck consisting of 13–25 vertebrae. </p><p>In all mammals, the <b>thoracic vertebrae</b> are connected to <a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">ribs</a> and their bodies differ from the other regional vertebrae due to the presence of facets. Each vertebra has a facet on each side of the vertebral body, which articulates with the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of rib">head of a rib</a>. There is also a facet on each of the transverse processes which articulates with the <a href="/wiki/Tubercle_(rib)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubercle (rib)">tubercle of a rib</a>. The number of thoracic vertebrae varies considerably across the species.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a> have thirteen, but <a href="/wiki/Koala" title="Koala">koalas</a> only have eleven.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The usual number is twelve to fifteen in <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, (twelve in the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a>), though there are from eighteen to twenty in the <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tapir" title="Tapir">tapir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceros</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a>. In certain sloths, there is an extreme number of twenty-five and at the other end only nine in the <a href="/wiki/Cetacean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetacean">cetacean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are fewer <b>lumbar vertebrae</b> in <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, which have three in contrast to the five in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i>. This reduction in number gives an inability of the lumbar spine to <a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">lordose</a> but gives an anatomy that favours vertical climbing, and hanging ability more suited to feeding locations in high-canopied regions.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobo</a> differs by having four lumbar vertebrae. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Caudal_(anatomical_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal (anatomical term)">Caudal</a> vertebrae</b> are the bones that make up the tails of vertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-kardong287-288_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kardong287-288-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They range in number from a few to fifty, depending on the length of the animal's tail. In humans and other tailless <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, they are called the <a href="/wiki/Coccygeal_vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccygeal vertebrae">coccygeal vertebrae</a>, number from three to five and are fused into the <a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray303.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Vertebral arches of three thoracic vertebrae"><img alt="Vertebral arches of three thoracic vertebrae" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Gray303.png/120px-Gray303.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Gray303.png/179px-Gray303.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Gray303.png/239px-Gray303.png 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Vertebral arches of three thoracic vertebrae</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray312.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Costovertebral joints seen from the front"><img alt="Costovertebral joints seen from the front" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gray312.png/114px-Gray312.png" decoding="async" width="114" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gray312.png/171px-Gray312.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gray312.png/228px-Gray312.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="527" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Costovertebral joints seen from the front</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_9.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae seen from the side"><img alt="Lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae seen from the side" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Sobo_1909_9.png/91px-Sobo_1909_9.png" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Sobo_1909_9.png/136px-Sobo_1909_9.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Sobo_1909_9.png/181px-Sobo_1909_9.png 2x" data-file-width="1676" data-file-height="2216" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae seen from the side</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_4.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Cervical vertebrae seen from the back"><img alt="Cervical vertebrae seen from the back" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Sobo_1909_4.png/97px-Sobo_1909_4.png" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Sobo_1909_4.png/146px-Sobo_1909_4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Sobo_1909_4.png/195px-Sobo_1909_4.png 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="1748" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cervical vertebrae seen from the back</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm/120px--Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="68" data-durationhint="183" data-mwtitle="Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm/Vertebrae_Anatomy_by_Jason_Christian.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Vertebrae anatomy</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limbus_vertebra" title="Limbus vertebra">Limbus vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_spinal_unit" title="Functional spinal unit">Functional spinal unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pott_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pott disease">Pott disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheuermann%27s_disease" title="Scheuermann's disease">Scheuermann's disease</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/anatomyofhumanbo1918gray#page/96/mode/2up">page 96</a> of the 20th edition of</i> <a href="/wiki/Gray%27s_Anatomy" title="Gray's Anatomy">Gray's Anatomy</a> <i>(1918)</i> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McGraw-Hill Science and Technology<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (July 2020)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dartmouth-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dartmouth_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFO'Rahilly,_Müller,_Carpenter_&_Swenson" class="citation web cs1">O'Rahilly, Müller, Carpenter & Swenson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://humananatomy.host.dartmouth.edu/BHA/public_html/part_7/chapter_39.html">"Chapter 39: The vertebral column"</a>. <i>Basic Human Anatomy</i>. www.dartmouth.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Basic+Human+Anatomy&rft.atitle=Chapter+39%3A+The+vertebral+column&rft.au=O%27Rahilly%2C+M%C3%BCller%2C+Carpenter+%26+Swenson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhumananatomy.host.dartmouth.edu%2FBHA%2Fpublic_html%2Fpart_7%2Fchapter_39.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebra" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorland's2012" class="citation book cs1">Dorland's (2012). <i>Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary</i> (32nd ed.). 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(Mar 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2270387">"The distribution of mineral density in the cervical vertebral endplates"</a>. <i>Eur Spine J</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 432–438. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00586-008-0601-5">10.1007/s00586-008-0601-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2270387">2270387</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18193299">18193299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eur+Spine+J&rft.atitle=The+distribution+of+mineral+density+in+the+cervical+vertebral+endplates&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=432-438&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2270387%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18193299&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00586-008-0601-5&rft.au=Muller-Gerbl%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2270387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor" class="citation web cs1">Taylor, Tim. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/skeletal/lumbar-vertebrae-lateral">"Lumbar Vertebrae"</a>. <i>InnerBody</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Scientists find answers in an unlikely place"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20240324031927/https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/23/world/humans-tails-genetic-mutation-junk-dna-scn/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vertebratescompa00kard/page/287"><i>Vertebrates: comparative anatomy, function, evolution</i></a>. McGraw-Hill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vertebratescompa00kard/page/287">287–288</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-290956-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-290956-2"><bdi>978-0-07-290956-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vertebrates%3A+comparative+anatomy%2C+function%2C+evolution&rft.pages=287-288&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-07-290956-2&rft.aulast=Kardong&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvertebratescompa00kard%2Fpage%2F287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyman1922" class="citation book cs1">Hyman, Libbie (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ost-biology-labmanualcompvert00hymarich"><i>Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ost-biology-labmanualcompvert00hymarich/page/n144">125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Vertebrate+Anatomy&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=Libbie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fost-biology-labmanualcompvert00hymarich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVertebra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertebra&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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Pennsylvania State University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ect.downstate.edu/courseware/haonline/labs/l26/os0110.htm">Anatomy photo:26:os-0110</a> at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100101010101/http://ect.downstate.edu/courseware/haonline/figs/l02/020110.htm">Anatomy figure: 02:01-10</a> at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100101010101/http://ect.downstate.edu/courseware/haonline/figs/l18/180201.htm">Anatomy figure: 18:02-01</a> at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/a/umich.edu/bluelink/curricula/first-year-medical-curriculum/sequence-1-Foundations/session-2-spinal-cord-and-peripheral-nervous-system/bluelink">Vertebra</a> - BlueLink Anatomy - University of Michigan Medical School</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.med.umich.edu/lrc/coursepages/m1/anatomy2010/html/atlas/back_bone28.html">Atlas image: back_bone28</a> at the University of Michigan Health System</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100101010101/http://ect.downstate.edu/courseware/haonline/figs/l02/020208.htm">Anatomy figure: 02:02-08</a> at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ucumberlands.edu/academics/biology/faculty/kuss/courses/vertbraeribssternum/amphicoelousETC.htm">The shapes of the articulating ends of vertebrae</a> – University of the Cumberlands</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bone_and_cartilage" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bone_and_cartilage" title="Template:Bone and cartilage"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bone_and_cartilage" title="Template talk:Bone and cartilage"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bone_and_cartilage" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bone and cartilage"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bone_and_cartilage" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perichondrium" title="Perichondrium">perichondrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrocartilage_callus" title="Fibrocartilage callus">fibrocartilage callus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysis" title="Metaphysis">metaphysis</a></li> <li>Cells <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chondroblast" title="Chondroblast">chondroblast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chondrocyte" title="Chondrocyte">chondrocyte</a></li></ul></li> <li>Types <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyaline_cartilage" title="Hyaline cartilage">hyaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_cartilage" title="Elastic cartilage">elastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrocartilage" title="Fibrocartilage">fibrous</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ossification" title="Ossification">Ossification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_bone" title="Primary bone">primary bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intramembranous_ossification" title="Intramembranous ossification">intramembranous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endochondral_ossification" title="Endochondral ossification">endochondral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteoblast" title="Osteoblast">osteoblast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteocyte" title="Osteocyte">osteocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Matrix</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_mineral" title="Bone mineral">bone mineral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossein" title="Ossein">ossein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteoid" title="Osteoid">osteoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone#Cancellous_bone" title="Bone">cancellous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone#Cortical_bone" title="Bone">cortical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epiphysis" title="Epiphysis">subchondral bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphysis" title="Epiphysis">epiphysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphyseal_plate" title="Epiphyseal plate">epiphyseal plate</a>/<a href="/wiki/Epiphyseal_line" title="Epiphyseal line">epiphyseal line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysis" title="Metaphysis">metaphysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaphysis" title="Diaphysis">diaphysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condyle" title="Condyle">condyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicondyle" title="Epicondyle">epicondyle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteon" title="Osteon">osteon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haversian_canal" title="Haversian canal">Haversian canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volkmann%27s_canals" class="mw-redirect" title="Volkmann's canals">Volkmann's canals</a></li> <li><i>connective tissue</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endosteum" title="Endosteum">endosteum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periosteum" title="Periosteum">periosteum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharpey%27s_fibres" title="Sharpey's fibres">Sharpey's fibres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthesis" title="Enthesis">enthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacuna_(histology)" title="Lacuna (histology)">lacunae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_canaliculus" title="Bone canaliculus">canaliculi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabecula" title="Trabecula">trabeculae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medullary_cavity" title="Medullary cavity">medullary cavity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Shapes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_bone" title="Long bone">long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_bone" title="Short bone">short</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_bone" title="Flat bone">flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_bone" title="Irregular bone">irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesamoid_bone" title="Sesamoid bone">sesamoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bones_of_the_torso" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bones_of_torso" title="Template:Bones of torso"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bones_of_torso" title="Template talk:Bones of torso"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bones_of_torso" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bones of torso"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bones_of_the_torso" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bones</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Torso" title="Torso">torso</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of vertebra">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral arch">Arch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedicle_of_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedicle of vertebral arch">pedicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamina_of_the_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamina of the vertebral arch">lamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_notch" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral notch">notch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_foramen" title="Vertebral foramen">Vertebral foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_foramen" title="Intervertebral foramen">Intervertebral foramen</a></li> <li><i>Processes</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse processes">transverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articular_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Articular processes">articular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinous_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinous process">spinous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">Spinal canal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">Cervical vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uncinate_process_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncinate process of vertebra">Uncinate process of vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_foramen" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse foramen">Transverse foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_tubercle_of_cervical_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior tubercle of cervical vertebra">Anterior tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carotid_tubercle" class="mw-redirect" title="Carotid tubercle">Carotid tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_tubercle_of_cervical_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior tubercle of cervical vertebra">Posterior tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_(anatomy)" title="Atlas (anatomy)">Atlas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_mass_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral mass of atlas">lateral mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_arch_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior arch of atlas">anterior arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_arch_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior arch of atlas">posterior arch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">Axis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dens (anatomy)">dens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebra_prominens" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebra prominens">Vertebra prominens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">Thoracic vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costal_facet" title="Costal facet">Costal facets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_costal_facet" title="Superior costal facet">superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_costal_facet" title="Inferior costal facet">inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_costal_facet" title="Transverse costal facet">transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncinate_process_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncinate process of vertebra">Uncinate process of vertebra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">Lumbar vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Processes</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory process">accessory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammillary_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammillary process">mammillary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">Sacrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_of_the_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Base of the sacrum">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_promontory" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral promontory">sacral promontory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ala_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala of sacrum">Ala of sacrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral surface of sacrum">Lateral surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_tuberosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral tuberosity">sacral tuberosity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelvic surface of sacrum">Pelvic surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_sacral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior sacral foramina">anterior sacral foramina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal surface of sacrum">Dorsal surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_sacral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior sacral foramina">posterior sacral foramina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Median sacral crest">Median sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial sacral crest">Medial sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral sacral crest">Lateral sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral canal">Sacral canal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_hiatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral hiatus">sacral hiatus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">Coccyx</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>none</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">Thorax</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">Rib cage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Ribs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/True_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="True ribs">true ribs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="False ribs">false ribs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating ribs">floating ribs</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Parts</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_(rib)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angle (rib)">angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubercle_(rib)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubercle (rib)">tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costal_groove" class="mw-redirect" title="Costal groove">costal groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_of_rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Neck of rib">neck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of rib">head</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sternum">Sternum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suprasternal_notch" title="Suprasternal notch">Suprasternal notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manubrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Manubrium">Manubrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternal_angle" title="Sternal angle">Sternal angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of sternum">Body of sternum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphisternal_joint" title="Xiphisternal joint">Xiphisternal joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphoid_process" title="Xiphoid process">Xiphoid process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_cage" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic cage">Thoracic cage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_thoracic_aperture" title="Superior thoracic aperture">Superior thoracic aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercostal_space" title="Intercostal space">Intercostal space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costal_margin" title="Costal margin">Costal margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrasternal_angle" title="Infrasternal angle">Infrasternal angle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spinal_disease" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spinal_disease" title="Template:Spinal disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spinal_disease" title="Template talk:Spinal disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spinal_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spinal disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spinal_disease" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_disease" title="Spinal disease">Spinal disease</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deforming</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_curvature" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal curvature">Spinal curvature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyphosis" title="Kyphosis">Kyphosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">Lordosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoliosis" title="Scoliosis">Scoliosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheuermann%27s_disease" title="Scheuermann's disease">Scheuermann's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torticollis" title="Torticollis">Torticollis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spondylopathy" title="Spondylopathy">Spondylopathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">inflammatory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spondylitis" title="Spondylitis">Spondylitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankylosing_spondylitis" title="Ankylosing spondylitis">Ankylosing spondylitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacroiliitis" title="Sacroiliitis">Sacroiliitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discitis" title="Discitis">Discitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spondylodiscitis" title="Spondylodiscitis">Spondylodiscitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pott%27s_disease" title="Pott's disease">Pott's disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">non inflammatory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spondylosis" title="Spondylosis">Spondylosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spondylolysis" title="Spondylolysis">Spondylolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spondylolisthesis" title="Spondylolisthesis">Spondylolisthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrolisthesis" title="Retrolisthesis">Retrolisthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_stenosis" title="Spinal stenosis">Spinal stenosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facet_syndrome" title="Facet syndrome">Facet syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Back_pain" title="Back pain">Back pain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neck_pain" title="Neck pain">Neck pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_back_pain" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper back pain">Upper back pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_back_pain" title="Low back pain">Low back pain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coccydynia" title="Coccydynia">Coccydynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciatica" title="Sciatica">Sciatica</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiculopathy" title="Radiculopathy">Radiculopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc#Disease" title="Intervertebral disc">Intervertebral disc 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