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科学史 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书
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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>科學史的理論與社會學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-科學史的理論與社會學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-早期的文化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#早期的文化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>早期的文化</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-早期的文化-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关早期的文化子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-早期的文化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-新月沃土的科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#新月沃土的科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>新月沃土的科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-新月沃土的科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-古典時期的科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#古典時期的科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>古典時期的科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-古典時期的科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-印度的科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#印度的科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>印度的科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-印度的科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-数学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#数学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>数学</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-数学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-天文学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#天文学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>天文学</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-天文学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-医学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#医学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>医学</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-医学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-冶金学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#冶金学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>冶金学</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-冶金学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-中國的科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中國的科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>中國的科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中國的科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-中世紀" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中世紀"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>中世紀</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-中世紀-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关中世紀子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-中世紀-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-伊斯蘭的科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#伊斯蘭的科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>伊斯蘭的科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-伊斯蘭的科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-從十二世紀復興的歐洲科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#從十二世紀復興的歐洲科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>從十二世紀復興的歐洲科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-從十二世紀復興的歐洲科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-科學革命" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#科學革命"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>科學革命</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-科學革命-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-現代科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#現代科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>現代科學</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-現代科學-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关現代科學子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-現代科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-自然科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#自然科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>自然科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-自然科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-物理學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#物理學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>物理學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-物理學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-化學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#化學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>化學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-化學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-地質學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#地質學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>地質學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-地質學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-天文學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#天文學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>天文學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-天文學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-生物學、醫學和遺傳學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#生物學、醫學和遺傳學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.5</span> <span>生物學、醫學和遺傳學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-生物學、醫學和遺傳學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-生態學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#生態學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.6</span> <span>生態學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-生態學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-社會科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#社會科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>社會科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-社會科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-政治科學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#政治科學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>政治科學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-政治科學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-語言學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#語言學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>語言學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-語言學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-經濟學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#經濟學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3</span> <span>經濟學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-經濟學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-心理學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#心理學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.4</span> <span>心理學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-心理學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-社會學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#社會學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.5</span> <span>社會學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-社會學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-人類學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#人類學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.6</span> <span>人類學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-人類學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-新兴學科" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#新兴學科"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>新兴學科</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-新兴學科-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-參見" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#參見"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>參見</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-參見-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参考文献" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参考文献"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>参考文献</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关参考文献子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-引用" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#引用"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>引用</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-引用-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-来源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#来源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>来源</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-来源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部連結" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部連結"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>外部連結</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部連結-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">开关目录</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">科学史</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。76种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">76种语言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85" title="تاريخ العلوم – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ العلوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_ciencia" title="Historia de la ciencia – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de la ciencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elm_tarixi" title="Elm tarixi – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elm tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Гісторыя навукі – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя навукі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="История на науката – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на науката" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_ci%C3%A8ncia" title="Història de la ciència – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la ciència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="مێژووی زانست – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی زانست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_v%C4%9Bdy" title="Dějiny vědy – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny vědy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videnskabshistorie" title="Videnskabshistorie – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Videnskabshistorie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftsgeschichte" title="Wissenschaftsgeschichte – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissenschaftsgeschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της επιστήμης – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της επιστήμης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="History of science" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_scienco" title="Historio de scienco – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de scienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_ciencia" title="Historia de la ciencia – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la ciencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientziaren_historia" title="Zientziaren historia – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zientziaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="تاریخ علم – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ علم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieteen_historia" title="Tieteen historia – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tieteen historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_des_sciences" title="Histoire des sciences – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire des sciences" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stair_na_heola%C3%ADochta_agus_na_teicneola%C3%ADochta" title="Stair na heolaíochta agus na teicneolaíochta – 爱尔兰语" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stair na heolaíochta agus na teicneolaíochta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="爱尔兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istw%C3%A8_d%C3%A9_syans" title="Istwè dé syans – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Istwè dé syans" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_ciencia" title="Historia da ciencia – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da ciencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shennaghys_yn_oaylleeaght_as_y_%C3%A7haghnoaylleeaght" title="Shennaghys yn oaylleeaght as y çhaghnoaylleeaght – 马恩语" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Shennaghys yn oaylleeaght as y çhaghnoaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="马恩语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="היסטוריה של המדע – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של המדע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="विज्ञान का इतिहास – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विज्ञान का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_znanosti" title="Povijest znanosti – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest znanosti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1nyt%C3%B6rt%C3%A9net" title="Tudománytörténet – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudománytörténet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիտության պատմություն – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտության պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_scientia" title="Historia del scientia – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia del scientia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_ilmu" title="Sejarah ilmu – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah ilmu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_la_cienco" title="Historio di la cienco – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di la cienco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADsindasaga" title="Vísindasaga – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vísindasaga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_scienza" title="Storia della scienza – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della scienza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="科学史 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischri_a_sayans" title="Ischri a sayans – 牙買加克里奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ischri a sayans" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克里奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Ғылым тарихы – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылым тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%A7%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಆಧುನಿಕ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಧುನಿಕ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%82%AC" title="과학사 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AEroka_zanist%C3%AA" title="Dîroka zanistê – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dîroka zanistê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istori_Godhonieth" title="Istori Godhonieth – 康沃尔语" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Istori Godhonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康沃尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Илим тарыхы – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Илим тарыхы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_scientiae" title="Historia scientiae – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia scientiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_de_siensa" title="Istoria de siensa – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Istoria de siensa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tnes_v%C4%93sture" title="Zinātnes vēsture – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zinātnes vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="विज्ञानके इतिहास – 迈蒂利语" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="विज्ञानके इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="迈蒂利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijarah_Ilmu" title="Sijarah Ilmu – 米南佳保语" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Sijarah Ilmu" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="米南佳保语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ശാസ്ത്രചരിത്രം – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശാസ്ത്രചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="विज्ञानया इतिहास – 尼瓦尔语" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="विज्ञानया इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="尼瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschapsgeschiedenis" title="Wetenschapsgeschiedenis – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschapsgeschiedenis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_di_siencia" title="Historia di siencia – 帕皮阿门托语" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Historia di siencia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="帕皮阿门托语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_nauki" title="Historia nauki – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia nauki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د علم تاریخ – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د علم تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_ci%C3%AAncia" title="História da ciência – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da ciência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_%C8%99tiin%C8%9Bei" title="Istoria științei – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria științei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="История науки – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История науки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%83" title="विज्ञानेतिहासः – 梵语" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विज्ञानेतिहासः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="梵语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="سائنس جي تاريخ – 信德语" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سائنس جي تاريخ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_nauke" title="Historija nauke – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija nauke" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="නවීන විද්යාවේ ඉතිහාසය – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නවීන විද්යාවේ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of science" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_vedy" title="Dejiny vedy – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny vedy" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_znanosti_in_tehnike" title="Zgodovina znanosti in tehnike – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina znanosti in tehnike" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_shkenc%C3%ABs" title="Historia e shkencës – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e shkencës" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_nauke" title="Istorija nauke – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija nauke" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskapshistoria" title="Vetenskapshistoria – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskapshistoria" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="அறிவியலின் வரலாறு – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவியலின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ประวัติศาสตร์วิทยาศาสตร์ – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสตร์วิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_ng_agham" title="Kasaysayan ng agham – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kasaysayan ng agham" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim_tarihi" title="Bilim tarihi – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilim tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Історія науки – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія науки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Lịch sử khoa học – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử khoa học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="科学史 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="科学史" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%98" title="היסטאריע פון וויסנשאפט – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="היסטאריע פון וויסנשאפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E8%A5%BF%E6%A0%BC%E8%87%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="泰西格致史 – 文言文" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="泰西格致史" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="文言文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="科學史 – 粤语" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="科學史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="粤语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q201486#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="编辑跨语言链接" class="wbc-editpage">编辑链接</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="命名空间"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="浏览条目正文[c]" 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.sidebar-heading,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-above,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-below{background:inherit!important;color:inherit!important;border-color:#54595d!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar a:not(.new):not(.mw-selflink):link{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:130%;background:#ccf;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">科学史</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Libr0310.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Frontispiece of the "Rudolphine Tables" published by Johannes Kepler in 1627"><img alt="Frontispiece of the "Rudolphine Tables" published by Johannes Kepler in 1627" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Libr0310.jpg/220px-Libr0310.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Libr0310.jpg/330px-Libr0310.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Libr0310.jpg/440px-Libr0310.jpg 2x" data-file-width="965" data-file-height="1473" /></a><figcaption>Frontispiece of the "Rudolphine Tables" published by Johannes Kepler in 1627</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;text-align:center;border-bottom: 1px #aaa solid;">背景</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="科学史学史">科学史学史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学史社会学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Sociology of the history of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学史社会学(页面不存在)">科学史社会学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Sociology of the history of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Sociology of the history of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="伪科学史">偽科學史</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;text-align:center;border-bottom: 1px #aaa solid;">依年代分類</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="早期文化時期" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of science in early cultures"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="早期文化時期(页面不存在)">早期文化時期</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_in_early_cultures" class="extiw" title="en:History of science in early cultures"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of science in early cultures</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="古典上古時期" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of science in classical antiquity"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E4%B8%8A%E5%8F%A4%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="古典上古時期(页面不存在)">古典上古時期</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" class="extiw" title="en:History of science in classical antiquity"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of science in classical antiquity</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E9%BB%83%E9%87%91%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="伊斯蘭黃金時代">伊斯蘭黃金時代</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="文藝復興時期的科學史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of science in the Renaissance"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%87%E8%97%9D%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="文藝復興時期的科學史(页面不存在)">文藝復興時期的科學史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="extiw" title="en:History of science in the Renaissance"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of science in the Renaissance</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="科学革命">科学革命</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="Romanticism in science" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Romanticism in science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanticism_in_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Romanticism in science(页面不存在)">Romanticism</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" class="extiw" title="en:Romanticism in science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Romanticism in science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;text-align:center;border-bottom: 1px #aaa solid;">依文化分類</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="非洲的科學史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of science and technology in Africa"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="非洲的科學史(页面不存在)">非洲的科學史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" class="extiw" title="en:History of science and technology in Africa"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of science and technology in Africa</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BA%AD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="拜占庭科學">拜占庭科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="中世紀科學史">中世紀科學史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="中国科学史">中国科学史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="印度的科學史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of Indian science and technology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="印度的科學史(页面不存在)">印度的科學史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indian_science_and_technology" class="extiw" title="en:History of Indian science and technology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of Indian science and technology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="中世紀伊斯蘭世界的科學">中世紀伊斯蘭世界的科學</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;text-align:center;border-bottom: 1px #aaa solid;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="自然科学">自然科学</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="天文学史">天文学史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="生物学史">生物学史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="植物學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of botany"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物學歷史(页面不存在)">植物學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany" class="extiw" title="en:History of botany"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of botany</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="化学史">化学史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="生態學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of ecology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="生態學歷史(页面不存在)">生態學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ecology" class="extiw" title="en:History of ecology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of ecology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%8F%B2" title="演化思想史">演化思想史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="地质学史">地质学史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="地球物理學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of geophysics"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="地球物理學歷史(页面不存在)">地球物理學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geophysics" class="extiw" title="en:History of geophysics"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of geophysics</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="古生物學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of paleontology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="古生物學歷史(页面不存在)">古生物學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology" class="extiw" title="en:History of paleontology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of paleontology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="物理学史">物理学史</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;text-align:center;border-bottom: 1px #aaa solid;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="数学史">数学史</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="代數學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of elementary algebra"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%A3%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="代數學歷史(页面不存在)">代數學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_elementary_algebra" class="extiw" title="en:History of elementary algebra"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of elementary algebra</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="微積分學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of calculus"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%AE%E7%A9%8D%E5%88%86%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="微積分學歷史(页面不存在)">微積分學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_calculus" class="extiw" title="en:History of calculus"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of calculus</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="組合數學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of combinatorics"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B5%84%E5%90%88%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="組合數學歷史(页面不存在)">組合數學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_combinatorics" class="extiw" title="en:History of combinatorics"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of combinatorics</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="幾何學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of geometry"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B9%BE%E4%BD%95%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="幾何學歷史(页面不存在)">幾何學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geometry" class="extiw" title="en:History of geometry"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of geometry</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%8F%B2" title="逻辑史">逻辑史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="機率論歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of probability"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A9%9F%E7%8E%87%E8%AB%96%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="機率論歷史(页面不存在)">機率論歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_probability" class="extiw" title="en:History of probability"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of probability</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="統計學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of statistics"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="統計學歷史(页面不存在)">統計學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics" class="extiw" title="en:History of statistics"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of statistics</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="三角學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of trigonometry"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%89%E8%A7%92%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="三角學歷史(页面不存在)">三角學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" class="extiw" title="en:History of trigonometry"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of trigonometry</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;text-align:center;border-bottom: 1px #aaa solid;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="社会科学史">社会科学史</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="人類學史">人類學史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%8F%B2" title="经济思想史">经济思想史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="地理學史">地理学史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="語言學史">語言學史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="政治学史">政治学史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="心理学史">心理学史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="社會學史">社會學史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="History of sustainability" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of sustainability"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_sustainability&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of sustainability(页面不存在)">Sustainability</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sustainability" class="extiw" title="en:History of sustainability"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of sustainability</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;text-align:center;border-bottom: 1px #aaa solid;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%B2" title="技术史">技術/科技史</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="農業科學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of agricultural science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="農業科學歷史(页面不存在)">農業科學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" class="extiw" title="en:History of agricultural science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of agricultural science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="電腦/資訊/信息科學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of computer science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="電腦/資訊/信息科學歷史(页面不存在)">電腦/資訊/信息科學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_science" class="extiw" title="en:History of computer science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of computer science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="材料科學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of materials science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9D%90%E6%96%99%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="材料科學歷史(页面不存在)">材料科學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_materials_science" class="extiw" title="en:History of materials science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of materials science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="工程學歷史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of engineering"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%B8%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="工程學歷史(页面不存在)">工程學歷史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_engineering" class="extiw" title="en:History of engineering"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of engineering</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;text-align:center;border-bottom: 1px #aaa solid;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="医学史">医学史</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="医学史">医学史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%BD%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="兽医学">兽医学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="解剖学史">解剖学史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="神經科學史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of neuroscience"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="神經科學史(页面不存在)">神經科學史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" class="extiw" title="en:History of neuroscience"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of neuroscience</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="神經學史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of neurology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="神經學史(页面不存在)">神經學史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_neurology" class="extiw" title="en:History of neurology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of neurology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%90%A5%E5%85%BB%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="营养学">营养学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="病理學史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of pathology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%97%85%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="病理學史(页面不存在)">病理學史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pathology" class="extiw" title="en:History of pathology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of pathology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%97%A5%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="藥學史">藥理學史</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="margin-right:0.5em; padding:0.1em 0 0.4em;line-height:1.7em;"> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="分类"><img alt="分类" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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.navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:110%;margin:0 8em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:110%;margin:0 5em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-redirect" title="科學方法">科學方法</a>自古便不斷發展,但現代科學方法卻是始自伊斯蘭科學家,<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E4%BB%80%E6%9C%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="海什木">海什木</a>在大約西元1000年左右,運用實驗的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E9%A9%97%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="經驗主義">經驗</a>法則寫出了一本關於光學的著作《<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="光學書" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Book of Optics"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8%E6%9B%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="光學書(页面不存在)">光學書</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics" class="extiw" title="en:Book of Optics"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Book of Optics</span></a></span>)</span></span>》。然而,現代科學方法在13世紀的歐洲由<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="大學">大學</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E9%99%A2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="經院哲學">經院哲學</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E8%80%85" title="学者">學者</a>所發起<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="科學革命">科學革命</a>時,方才算發展完全<sup id="cite_ref-Woods_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woods-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,到了16世紀及17世紀早期的發展高峰,現代科學方法的廣泛應用更引領了知識的全面重估。科學方法的發展被某些人(尤其是<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="科學哲學">科學哲學</a>家及實證科學家)認為是太過於基礎而重要的,認為早先對於自然的探索只不過是<b>前科學</b>(pre-scientific),現代科學方法才被他們認為是真正的科學。習慣上,科學史學家仍舊認定早先的科學探索也包含於廣大而充足的科學範疇之中。<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="数学史">數學史</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="科技史">科技史</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="哲學史">哲學史</a>則在其各自的條目中描述。<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="數學">數學</a>跟科學很接近但有所區别(至少在現代的觀念上是這樣認為)。<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" class="mw-redirect" title="科技">科技</a>涉及設計有用的物件和系統的創造過程,跟尋求传统意义上的真理(empirical truth)又有所不同。<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="哲學">哲學</a>跟科學的不同在哲學還尋求其他的知識領域,如<a href="/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="倫理學">倫理學</a>,即便<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="自然科學">自然科學</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="社會科學">社會科學</a>也都是以既定的事實作爲理論基礎。實際上這些領域都作爲外在的重要工具為其他領域所用。 </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="科學史的理論與社會學"><span id=".E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8.E5.8F.B2.E7.9A.84.E7.90.86.E8.AB.96.E8.88.87.E7.A4.BE.E6.9C.83.E5.AD.B8"></span>科學史的理論與社會學</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节:科學史的理論與社會學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84833064">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E8%88%87%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學史的理論與社會學(页面不存在)">科學史的理論與社會學</a></div> <p>研究科學史大都在從事回答:「科學<b>是</b>什麽?」和「它如何<b>運作</b>」,以及它是否顯示出大規模的形式和趨勢。特別是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學社會學(页面不存在)">科學社會學</a>(sociology of science)專注于科學家工作的方法,尤其注重觀察在他們「產生」和「建立」科學知識时的方法。自1960年代以來,<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="科學研究">科學研究</a>(science studies)一個共同的趨勢,就在強調科學知識的「人的成分」,而不再強調科學資料是自顯的、無關價值和前因後果的這個觀點。 </p><p>在哲學上,科學的一個主要議題和其爭論焦點,正是關於<b>理論改變</b>這一範疇。有三個哲學家曾討論過這個題目。其一是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%B3%A2%E6%99%AE" class="mw-disambig" title="卡尔·波普">卡爾·波普</a>,指出科學知識是長年累月的累積,具有前進性;其二是<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BA%93%E6%81%A9" title="托马斯·库恩">托马斯·库恩</a>,認為科學知識是一個<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B8%E7%AF%84%E8%BD%89%E7%A7%BB" title="典範轉移">范式转换</a>(paradigm shift)的過程,而非單單是具前進性;其三是<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E8%B4%B9%E8%80%B6%E9%98%BF%E6%9C%AC%E5%BE%B7" title="保罗·费耶阿本德">保羅·费耶阿本德</a>,其觀點是科學知識並非長久的累積也不具前進性,而是一個類別的劃界(demarcation)。 </p><p>自<a href="/wiki/%E6%B9%AF%E7%91%AA%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%AD%94%E6%81%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="湯瑪斯·孔恩">孔恩</a>著作《<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84" title="科学革命的结构">科學革命的結構</a>》於1962年出版以来,學界一直辯論著關於「科學」的定義和目標。通常都沒有一致答案,尤其是關於在「真實性」的概念上,更曾一度引致觀點上的衝突。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="早期的文化"><span id=".E6.97.A9.E6.9C.9F.E7.9A.84.E6.96.87.E5.8C.96"></span>早期的文化</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节:早期的文化"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E5%89%8D%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="史前時代">史前時代</a>,知識早就以<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A3%E5%A4%B4%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="口头传统">口头传统</a>的方式代代相傳。例如早在9000年前,当时<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字">文字</a>还没出现,墨西哥南部就已经有农业种植玉米了。<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 同样,考古学证明<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學">天文學</a>知识在没有文字的时代就已经存在。<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字">文字</a>的发展使知識能得以更忠实的传承下来。到人類踏入<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E7%9F%B3%E5%99%A8%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="新石器革命">農業耕作的時代</a>,剩余的食物使人类有更多的时间发展文明,而不是单纯的考虑生存。最基本、最古老的科學知識,首推<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學">天文學</a>。 </p><p>古時許多文明國家,通过简单的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%80%E5%AF%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="觀察">觀察</a>收集天文信息,並以较为系統的方式紀錄。雖然他们並不知道这些天体的真实结构,許多關於<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%98%9F" title="行星">行星</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星系">星系</a>的自然現象,都開始有了理論上的闡釋。一些人體結構的研究開始顯現,並且開始有人觀察<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="動物">動物</a>群落和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物</a>群落的特質;同時一些<a href="/wiki/%E7%85%89%E9%87%91%E8%A1%93" class="mw-redirect" title="煉金術">煉金術</a>的理論,也在幾個主要文明出現。<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="新月沃土的科學"><span id=".E6.96.B0.E6.9C.88.E6.B2.83.E5.9C.9F.E7.9A.84.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>新月沃土的科學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节:新月沃土的科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">更多信息:<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6" title="古埃及数学">古埃及數學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="古埃及天文学">古埃及天文学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="古埃及醫學">古埃及医学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E4%BC%A6%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6" title="巴比伦数学">巴比倫數學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E4%BC%A6%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="巴比伦天文学">巴比伦天文学</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E4%BC%A6%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="巴比伦医学(页面不存在)">巴比伦医学</a></div> <p>早在公元3500年前,<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%9D%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="中東">中東</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%BC%E7%99%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E6%B2%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="幼發拉底河">幼發拉底河</a>一帶(即今<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B" title="伊拉克">伊拉克</a>)的人,已開始發展出一套以數學概念,紀錄自然現象的方式。但是這些觀察都只是有其他目的,而非純粹自然科學研究。舉例當時已有類似<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%A2%E6%B0%8F%E5%AE%9A%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="畢氏定理">畢氏定理</a>的數字研究紀錄,包含了一系列的數組——(3,4,5)、(5,12,13)。<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>但這始終都未能證明這些是畢氏定律的研究。<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>同時在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及">古埃及</a>,天文學、數學和醫藥研究都開始有了雛型。<sup id="cite_ref-odyssey_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-odyssey-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%BE%E4%BD%95" class="mw-redirect" title="幾何">幾何</a>學被普遍應用於土地測量,如「3、4、5」<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B4%E8%A7%92%E4%B8%89%E8%A7%92%E5%BD%A2" title="直角三角形">直角三角形</a>等資料紀錄,代表著古時的埃及已發展出一個實質的幾何體系。而古埃及也是地中海流域的<a href="/wiki/%E7%85%89%E9%87%91%E8%A1%93" class="mw-redirect" title="煉金術">煉金術</a>研究中心。 </p><p>《<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E5%BE%B7%E6%BA%AB%C2%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%AF%86%E6%96%AF%E7%B4%99%E8%8D%89%E6%96%87%E7%A8%BF" title="艾德溫·史密斯紙草文稿">艾德溫·史密斯紙草文稿</a>》是人類史上第一部醫學著作,由<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%8E%E8%8D%89%E7%B4%99" class="mw-redirect" title="莎草紙">莎草紙</a>寫成,是史上第一次文中指稱「腦」這個器官的文件,并提及<a href="/wiki/%E8%84%91%E8%86%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="脑膜">腦膜</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%84%8A%E9%AB%93" title="脊髓">脊髓</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E8%85%A6%E8%84%8A%E6%B6%B2" title="腦脊液">腦脊液</a>等等部位,可謂最早的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E5%A4%96%E7%A7%91" title="神經外科">神經外科</a>醫學文獻。然而,尽管古埃及有一些有效的医学实践,但另外也有无效的甚至是伤害性的实践。例如,医学历史学家认为,古埃及的药理学大部分是无效的。<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>然而,他们使用检查、诊断、治疗、预测等治疗疾病的方法,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>这是科学的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="经验主义">经验主义</a>开始<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,同时对于经验主义的发展有深远的意义。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="古典時期的科學"><span id=".E5.8F.A4.E5.85.B8.E6.99.82.E6.9C.9F.E7.9A.84.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>古典時期的科學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节:古典時期的科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/280px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/420px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/560px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3820" data-file-height="2964" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E6%96%90%E5%B0%94" title="拉斐尔">拉斐尔</a>所画的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%85%B8%E5%AD%B8%E9%99%A2_(%E7%95%AB%E4%BD%9C)" title="雅典學院 (畫作)">雅典學院 (畫作)</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="古典時期的科學史(页面不存在)">古典時期的科學史</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/220px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/330px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/440px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="924" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%8F%90%E5%9F%BA%E7%89%B9%E6%8B%89%E6%9C%BA%E6%A2%B0" title="安提基特拉机械">安提基特拉机械</a>的碎片,其为最早的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%A1%E6%8B%9F%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA" title="模拟计算机">模擬計算機</a>。</figcaption></figure> <p>在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="古典时期">古典時期</a>,面對著一些實際性問題的解決,包括編製<a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%86%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="曆法">曆法</a>和疾病治療,純粹的自然科學研究慢慢開始興起。當時從事科學研究的人,通常不被稱作「科學家」,而被視為科學上的哲學家。 </p><p>最早期的科學哲學家起源於古<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98" class="mw-redirect" title="希臘">希臘</a>,一般称他们为<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E8%8B%8F%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="前苏格拉底哲学">前苏格拉底哲学家</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>他们对于神话中问题:「<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="宇宙">宇宙</a>是從何而來?」提供了完整的回答。<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%8B%92%E6%96%AF" title="泰勒斯">泰勒斯</a>(前640-546年),又被称为“科学之父”,是第一个尝试用理性思维来解释自然现象,如陆地浮在水上及地震是由水面搅动引起的(而不是海神引起的)。<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>他的学生<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%95%E8%BE%BE%E5%93%A5%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF" title="毕达哥拉斯">毕达哥拉斯</a>创立了<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%95%E8%BE%BE%E5%93%A5%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="毕达哥拉斯主义">毕达哥拉斯主义</a>,他对数学的原理进行了研究,并且是第一个提出大地是球体。<sup id="cite_ref-dicks_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dicks-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E7%95%99%E5%9F%BA%E4%BC%AF" title="留基伯">留基伯</a>率先提出了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AB%96" title="原子論">原子论</a>,认为每一种事物都是由原子所组成的,其后由他的学生<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%B0%9F%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德谟克利特">德谟克利特</a>发扬光大。 </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archimedes_pi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Archimedes_pi.svg/220px-Archimedes_pi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Archimedes_pi.svg/330px-Archimedes_pi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Archimedes_pi.svg/440px-Archimedes_pi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>阿基米德使用<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%B7%E7%AB%AD%E6%B3%95" title="穷竭法">穷竭法</a>估算<a href="/wiki/%CE%A0" title="Π">π</a>值</figcaption></figure> <p>其後以<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9C%96" class="mw-redirect" title="柏拉圖">柏拉圖</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="亞里士多德">亞里士多德</a>等為首的後起者,相繼出版了首批的自然哲學著作。他们发展的<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E7%BB%8E%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="演绎推理">演绎推理</a>对后来的科学研究起重要作用。<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9C%96" class="mw-redirect" title="柏拉圖">柏拉圖</a>于前387年建立了<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2" title="柏拉图学院">柏拉图学院</a>,許多古希臘哲學名士曾受教於此。他的学生<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="亞里士多德">亞里士多德</a>提出的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="经验主义">经验主义</a>认为,一起宇宙真理都可以通过观察和归纳得到,这就是科学方法的基础。<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,亞里士多德的理论及著作对伊斯兰世界及欧洲有深远的影响,虽然有一些理論在<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="科学革命">科学革命</a>中推翻,但卻為後世的科學探索,奠下重要基礎。 </p><p>在這段期間,不同形式和類型的科學,都開始有個雛型。這包括了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="動物學">動物學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="植物學">植物學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學">天文學</a>等等;而一些像<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="物理">物理</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="數學">數學</a>的簡單理論,也開始出現。最典型的例子,首推<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%A2%E9%81%94%E5%93%A5%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="畢達哥拉斯">畢達哥拉斯</a>發表的<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%A2%E6%B0%8F%E5%AE%9A%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="畢氏定理">畢氏定理</a>;<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%9F%BA%E7%B1%B3%E5%BE%B7" title="阿基米德">阿基米德</a>發現了「<a href="/wiki/%E6%A7%93%E6%A1%BF%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="槓桿原理">槓桿原理</a>」和「<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9B%E7%9F%A9" title="力矩">力矩</a>」的觀念。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="印度的科學"><span id=".E5.8D.B0.E5.BA.A6.E7.9A.84.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>印度的科學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节:印度的科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:QtubIronPillar.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/175px-QtubIronPillar.JPG" decoding="async" width="175" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/263px-QtubIronPillar.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/350px-QtubIronPillar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1347" /></a><figcaption>古印度在早期<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%A6" title="冶金学">冶金学</a>中处于领先地位,用<a href="/wiki/%E9%8D%9B%E9%90%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="鍛鐵">锻铁</a>建造的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E9%90%B5%E6%9F%B1" title="德里鐵柱">德里铁柱</a>就是证据之一。</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="古印度科学技术史(页面不存在)">古印度科学技术史</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">更多信息:<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6" title="印度数学">印度数学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="印度天文學">印度天文学</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%AC%A1%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%86%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="印度次大陆冶金学史(页面不存在)">印度次大陆冶金学史</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="数学"><span id=".E6.95.B0.E5.AD.A6"></span>数学</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节:数学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>印度次大陆的数学知识最早出现在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%B2%B3%E6%B5%81%E5%9F%9F%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="印度河流域文明">印度河流域文明</a>(公元前4000年-前3000年)。这个文明中的人考虑到砖体结构的稳定性,以4:2:1的比例制造砖。<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>他们也尝试以高精度标准化长度测量。他们设计了一种分成10等份的尺“摩亨佐-达罗尺”,长度大约3.4公分。古代<a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E4%BA%A8%E4%BD%90-%E8%BE%BE%E7%BD%97" title="摩亨佐-达罗">摩亨佐-达罗</a>的砖的规格一般是这种单位的整数倍。<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>印度天文学家、数学家<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%80%B6%E6%B3%A2%E5%A4%9A" title="阿耶波多">阿耶波多</a>(476-550)在他的《阿耶波多曆書》中使用了一些三角函数(如<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E5%BC%A6" title="正弦">正弦</a>,<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E7%9F%A2" title="正矢">正矢</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%99%E5%BC%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="余弦">余弦</a>),<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E8%A7%92%E5%AD%A6" title="三角学">三角</a>表和技术,以及<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E6%95%B0" title="代数">代数</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BF%90%E7%AE%97%E6%B3%95%E5%88%99&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="运算法则(页面不存在)">运算法则</a>。 628年,<a href="/wiki/%E5%A9%86%E7%BE%85%E6%91%A9%E7%AC%88%E5%A4%9A" title="婆羅摩笈多">婆羅摩笈多</a>提出<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B" title="地球引力">地球引力</a>是一种引力。<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>他还普及了数学中一个非常重要的概念:<a href="/wiki/0" title="0">0</a>,同时0也作为十进制的字符,并跟随<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6-%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="印度-阿拉伯数字系统">印度-阿拉伯数字系统</a>沿用到现在。这两本天文学书籍的<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="阿拉伯语">阿拉伯语</a>翻译版很快就传到<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="伊斯兰世界">伊斯兰世界</a>,随后在9世纪在伊斯兰世界演变成<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97" title="阿拉伯数字">阿拉伯数字</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-ifrah_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ifrah-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oconnor_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oconnor-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>14到16世纪,印度的天文学及数学上有明显的进步,如<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E8%A7%92%E5%AD%A6" title="三角学">三角学</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90" title="数学分析">数学分析</a>。特别是<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="桑佳马格拉马的马德哈瓦" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Madhava of Sangamagrama"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A1%91%E4%BD%B3%E9%A9%AC%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E9%A9%AC%E7%9A%84%E9%A9%AC%E5%BE%B7%E5%93%88%E7%93%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="桑佳马格拉马的马德哈瓦(页面不存在)">桑佳马格拉马的马德哈瓦</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama" class="extiw" title="en:Madhava of Sangamagrama"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Madhava of Sangamagrama</span></a></span>)</span></span>被认为是“<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90" title="数学分析">数学分析</a>的创始人”。<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="天文学"><span id=".E5.A4.A9.E6.96.87.E5.AD.A6"></span>天文学</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节:天文学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>印度的宗教典籍<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%A0%E9%99%80%E7%BB%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="吠陀经">吠陀经</a>是第一部记载天文学概念的书。<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma-Ast-Ind_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma-Ast-Ind-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>古印度人把一年分成12个月,一个月为30日,所余差额则用闰月来弥补。<sup id="cite_ref-Sarma-Ast-Ind_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarma-Ast-Ind-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="尼拉坎撒·萨马亚吉" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Nilakantha Somayaji"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%9D%8E%E6%92%92%C2%B7%E8%90%A8%E9%A9%AC%E4%BA%9A%E5%90%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="尼拉坎撒·萨马亚吉(页面不存在)">尼拉坎撒·萨马亚吉</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilakantha_Somayaji" class="extiw" title="en:Nilakantha Somayaji"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Nilakantha Somayaji</span></a></span>)</span></span>的天文学论著<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="坦特罗概要" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Tantrasangraha"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9D%A6%E7%89%B9%E7%BD%97%E6%A6%82%E8%A6%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="坦特罗概要(页面不存在)">坦特罗概要</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantrasangraha" class="extiw" title="en:Tantrasangraha"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Tantrasangraha</span></a></span>)</span></span>与<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E8%B0%B7%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%8B%89%E8%B5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="第谷·布拉赫">第谷·布拉赫</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%AC%AC%E8%B0%B7%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="第谷系统(页面不存在)">第谷系统</a>相似,直到17世纪的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E6%99%AE%E5%8B%92" class="mw-redirect" title="开普勒">开普勒</a>时代前是最精确的天文模型。<sup id="cite_ref-Joseph_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="医学"><span id=".E5.8C.BB.E5.AD.A6"></span>医学</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节:医学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>从<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E7%9F%B3%E5%99%A8%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="新石器时代">新石器时代</a>的遗迹中(现在的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="巴基斯坦">巴基斯坦</a>)发现一些早期的农业文化。<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%82%B2%E5%90%A0%E9%99%80" title="阿育吠陀">阿育吠陀</a>是起源于公元前2500年古印度的传统医学,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>而现代则以<a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%BF%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="替代医学">替代醫學</a>的一种形式在世界上使用。古代印度人已经有比较丰富的药材知识,并且把药品制成各种药剂服用。特别是他们还认识到水有治病的功效。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="冶金学"><span id=".E5.86.B6.E9.87.91.E5.AD.A6"></span>冶金学</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节:冶金学"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>古印度发明了<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8D%E5%85%B9%E9%92%A2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伍兹钢(页面不存在)">伍兹钢</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%A9%E5%A0%9D%E9%8B%BC" title="坩堝鋼">坩埚钢</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E9%94%88%E9%92%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="不锈钢">不锈钢</a>并广泛传入地中海地区。<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%81%E6%99%AE%E6%9E%97%E5%B0%BC" title="老普林尼">老普林尼</a>称之为“ferrum indicum”(印度铁)。罗马帝国一直很重视印度伍兹钢,并认为这是最好的。到中世纪传入叙利亚,并用作生产特殊工艺的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E9%A6%AC%E5%A3%AB%E9%9D%A9%E9%8B%BC" title="大馬士革鋼">大馬士革鋼</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg/400px-M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg/600px-M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg/800px-M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2520" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>1281年蒙古帝国侵略日本时使用的中国火药。</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/220px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/330px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/440px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1372" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E8%98%87%E9%A0%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="蘇頌">蘇頌</a>的《新儀象法要》中的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%96" title="星圖">星图</a>(1092年)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="中國的科學"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E5.9C.8B.E7.9A.84.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>中國的科學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=10" title="编辑章节:中國的科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="中国科学史">中国科学史</a></div> <p>主流学术权威认为,中国的科学传统,与渊源于<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊">古希腊</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC" title="古罗马">古罗马</a>的欧陆科学,以及<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="伊斯兰世界">伊斯兰世界</a>的科学,是各自独立发展。中国科学萌芽于先秦时期,受到当时的哲学家中注重逻辑思辩、认识论及几何学研究的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E5%AE%B6" title="墨家">墨家</a>,以及重视辩论的<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8D%E5%AE%B6" title="名家">名家</a>所启蒙。汉代造纸术的普及提供了条件,使前人的科学思想知识及辩证,通过纸张保存了下来,后人得以前人的科学著作为蓝本作改良,或通过辩证后推翻,形成一套<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="经验主义">经验主义</a>科学传统。至隋唐及宋朝时,中国的科学曾长时期高据世界领先地位。然而由于近代历史原因,许多古中国科学著作或失传或流失海外,均不利于中国科学史的发掘整理。 </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_island_survey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sea_island_survey.jpg/250px-Sea_island_survey.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="371" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sea_island_survey.jpg/375px-Sea_island_survey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sea_island_survey.jpg/500px-Sea_island_survey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1923" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%98%E5%BE%BD" title="刘徽">刘徽</a>的窥望海岛之图</figcaption></figure> <p>现时可考证到的古中国科学著作,以及相关的古代著作数量庞大,涵盖科学数个主要分支:数学、医学、自然科学、建筑及工程学,又有其他次分支,包括农学、航海学、心理学、地图学及物候学等多个学科内容。系统化地记载了当时的科学知识及技术的发现及发明,包括了算术、草药应用、活字印刷、建筑及铸造术、机械构造法、观星导航术及地图制作。其中较为著名的中国科学著作有刘徽的数学著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%B2%9B%E7%AE%97%E7%BB%8F" title="海岛算经">海岛算经</a>》,記載了<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%9B%E6%AC%A1%E9%87%8D%E5%B7%AE%E8%A7%82%E6%B5%8B%E6%9C%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="四次重差观测术(页面不存在)">四次重差观测术</a>的發明;南北朝数学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%96%E5%86%B2%E4%B9%8B" title="祖冲之">祖冲之</a>著有的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%BC%80%E6%9C%AF" title="缀术">缀术</a>》,准确估算<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%86%E5%91%A8%E7%8E%87" class="mw-redirect" title="圆周率">圆周率</a>,該書後來東传至<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE_(%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%80)" title="朝鮮 (地區)">朝鲜</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC" title="日本">日本</a>;唐代王孝通的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%B7%9D%E5%8F%A4%E7%AE%97%E7%B6%93" title="緝古算經">缉古算经</a>》;金朝数学家李冶的《<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%8B%E5%9C%86%E6%B5%B7%E9%95%9C" title="测圆海镜">测圆海镜</a>》;元代数学家朱世杰的《<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E5%85%83%E7%8E%89%E9%89%B4" title="四元玉鉴">四元玉鉴</a>》;明代数学家王文素的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%AE%97%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%9D%E9%89%B4" title="算学宝鉴">算学宝鉴</a>》;数学家程大位的珠算理论著作《<a href="/wiki/%E7%AE%97%E6%B3%95%E7%B5%B1%E5%AE%97" title="算法統宗">直指算法统宗</a>》;数学家李之藻的《<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E6%96%87%E7%AE%97%E6%8C%87" title="同文算指">同文算指</a>》;数学家朱载堉著有的《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%8B%E5%90%95%E7%B2%BE%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="律吕精义(页面不存在)">律吕精义</a>》,发明了十二平均律。 </p><p>医学方面有<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%A0%E4%BB%B2%E6%99%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="张仲景">张仲景</a>的医学临床著作《<a href="/wiki/%E5%82%B7%E5%AF%92%E9%9B%9C%E7%97%85%E8%AB%96" title="傷寒雜病論">伤寒杂病论</a>》;隋朝医学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A2%E5%85%83%E6%96%B9" title="巢元方">巢元方</a>的外科手术著作《<a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%B8%E7%97%85%E6%BA%90%E5%80%99%E8%AB%96" title="諸病源候論">诸病源候论</a>》;明朝医药学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E6%97%B6%E7%8F%8D" title="李时珍">李时珍</a>的《<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%8D%89%E7%BA%B2%E7%9B%AE" title="本草纲目">本草纲目</a>》;明代医学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B3%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7" title="吳有性">吴有性</a>的温病学派著作《<a href="/wiki/%E7%98%9F%E7%96%AB%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="瘟疫论">瘟疫论</a>》,为中国最早有关传染病研究的著作。另外有明代<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%85%E5%85%83%E4%BB%AA" title="茅元仪">茅元仪</a>的军事书籍《<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E5%A4%87%E5%BF%97" class="mw-redirect" title="武备志">武备志</a>》,记载有当时的兵器发明;明代学者<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%A0%E6%9C%AC%E7%95%AF" title="屠本畯">屠本畯</a>又著成中国现存最早的海洋生物专著《<a href="/wiki/%E9%97%BD%E4%B8%AD%E6%B5%B7%E9%94%99%E7%96%8F" title="闽中海错疏">闽中海错疏</a>》;清代数学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E5%96%84%E5%85%B0" title="李善兰">李善兰</a>发明了对数微积分,并在组合恒等式方面提出李善兰恒等式,发表了《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%80%83%E6%95%B0%E6%A0%B9%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="考数根法(页面不存在)">考数根法</a>》,是质数论方面最早的著作。隋朝时又兴<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="博物学">博物学</a>,出现为数不少的地方志(或称图志、图经)。著有《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%B8%E9%83%A1%E7%89%A9%E4%BA%A7%E5%9C%9F%E4%BF%97%E8%AE%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="诸郡物产土俗记(页面不存在)">诸郡物产土俗记</a>》、《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%BA%E5%AE%87%E5%9B%BE%E5%BF%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="区宇图志(页面不存在)">区宇图志</a>》与《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%B8%E5%B7%9E%E5%9B%BE%E7%BB%8F%E9%9B%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="诸州图经集(页面不存在)">诸州图经集</a>》,风俗物产图《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%89%A9%E4%BA%A7%E5%9C%9F%E4%BF%97%E8%AE%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="物产土俗记(页面不存在)">物产土俗记</a>》及《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%BA%E5%AE%87%E5%9B%BE%E5%BF%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="区宇图志(页面不存在)">区宇图志</a>》,开中国编撰一统志之先河。朗蔚之采各地所上图经,纂成《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9A%8B%E8%AF%B8%E5%B7%9E%E5%9B%BE%E7%BB%8F%E9%9B%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="隋诸州图经集(页面不存在)">隋诸州图经集</a>》二百卷。裴矩写成《<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%9F%9F%E5%9B%BE%E8%AE%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="西域图记">西域图记</a>》,记载自敦煌通中亚诸国直至地中海的三条丝路。 </p><p>中国科学及数学的传统造就了农业、纺织及手工业、铸造工业、商业及兵器的技术发展,并衍生出各种发明品。其中科學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%88%E6%8B%AC" title="沈括">沈括</a>發明了<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97%E9%87%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="指南針">指南針</a>,此外他還發現了<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E5%8C%97" title="真北">真北</a>的概念,改進了天文觀測用的<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%99%B7" title="日晷">日規</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%BE%E5%A4%A9%E5%84%80" class="mw-redirect" title="渾天儀">渾天儀</a>、瞄準管和水鐘以及描述了如何使用<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%BE%E8%88%B9%E5%A1%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="乾船塢">乾船塢</a>來修理船隻;設計出了一套<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%BD%A2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="地形學">地形學</a>理論,以及區域氣候隨時間漸變的理論;沈括的同期的科學家<a href="/wiki/%E8%98%87%E9%A0%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="蘇頌">蘇頌</a>創製了星圖的天球圖集,寫過跟<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="植物學">植物學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="動物學">動物學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%A6%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="礦物學">礦物學</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="冶金學">冶金學</a>相關的製藥專著,及於1088年在<a href="/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E5%B0%81" class="mw-redirect" title="開封">開封</a>市建過一座大型天文鐘樓。為操作最高處的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%BE%E5%A4%A9%E5%84%80" class="mw-redirect" title="渾天儀">渾天儀</a>,他的鐘樓配備了擒縱器裝置,這裝置世界已知最古老的環狀動力傳輸的鏈傳輸裝置。兵器方面有十四世纪末发明的热兵器“<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%81%AB%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="神火飞鸦">神火飞鸦</a>”;十六世纪中叶发明的火箭“<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E9%BE%8D%E5%87%BA%E6%B0%B4" title="火龍出水">火龙出水</a>”;1580年军事家<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%9A%E7%BB%A7%E5%85%89" title="戚继光">戚继光</a>发明的地雷“<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%8A%AF%E9%92%A2%E8%BD%AE%E7%81%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="自犯钢轮火(页面不存在)">自犯钢轮火</a>”。周代发明的<a href="/wiki/%E7%AD%B9%E7%AE%97" title="筹算">筹算</a>,促成了印度阿拉伯的数字体系,而中国的造纸、纺织等技术在751年的<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9B%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E6%88%98%E5%BD%B9" title="怛罗斯战役">怛罗斯战役</a>之后传入<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="阿拉伯帝国">阿拉伯帝国</a>,之后在十二世纪传入西班牙,到十三世纪传入意大利,到十四世纪初叶传遍整个欧洲。有关中国古代科学研究的证据,可见于汉代大司农<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%BF%E5%AF%BF%E6%98%8C" title="耿寿昌">耿寿昌</a>发明的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%91%E8%B1%A1" title="浑象">浑象</a>;唐代天文学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%83%A7%E4%B8%80%E8%A1%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="僧一行">僧一行</a>对<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E5%8D%88%E7%BA%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="子午线">子午线</a>长度的测量;明代数学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%B1%E8%BD%BD%E5%A0%89" class="mw-redirect" title="朱载堉">朱载堉</a>发明的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B4%AF%E9%BB%8D%E5%AE%9A%E5%B0%BA%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="累黍定尺法(页面不存在)">累黍定尺法</a>,精确计算出北京的地理位置及<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%A3%81%E5%81%8F%E8%A7%92" title="地磁偏角">地磁偏角</a>,又计算出<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9E%E5%BD%92%E5%B9%B4" title="回归年">回归年</a>长度和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E9%93%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="水银">水银</a>的比重,均是著名的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="经验主义">经验主义</a>科学研究例子。晋代医学家<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%9B%E6%B4%AA" title="葛洪">葛洪</a>《抱朴子‧博喻》曰:“学而不思, 则疑阂实繁;讲而不精,则长惑丧功。”,道出了古代中国学者对辩证及实验重要性的认知。 </p><p>至近代,中国科学渐见没落,经历了一段再启蒙时期,欧洲列强的科学传统及成果传到中国。在清末的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%8B%E5%8A%A1%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" title="洋务运动">洋务运动</a>主张“<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%BD%93%E8%A5%BF%E7%94%A8" title="中体西用">中体西用</a>”。以中国传统的思想、文化及制度为基础,引进西方先进的科学技术,是为“中学为体,西学为用”。洋务运动的拥护者<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%AF%E6%A1%82%E8%8A%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="冯桂芬">冯桂芬</a>主张接受欧美思想为主的学术,提出“以中国之伦常名教为原本,辅以诸国富强之术”的主张。至廿一世纪,随着现代中国工业的快速发展和经济的迅速增长,中国科学才见起色。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="中世紀"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E4.B8.96.E7.B4.80"></span>中世紀</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=11" title="编辑章节:中世紀"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="中世紀科學史">中世紀科學史</a></div> <p>自<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="古罗马帝国">古羅馬帝國</a>崩潰後,歐洲踏入中世紀。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%86%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%9B%BE%E4%B9%A6%E9%A6%86" title="亚历山大图书馆">亚历山大图书馆</a>从罗马统治期间被摧毁后,<sup id="cite_ref-Plutarch_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plutarch-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>在642年<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E6%96%AF%E6%9E%97%E5%BE%81%E6%9C%8D%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="穆斯林征服埃及">穆斯林征服埃及</a>后,再一次被摧毁。<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BA%AD%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="拜占庭帝国">拜占庭帝国</a>還是學術中心,如<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%9B%E5%A3%AB%E5%9D%A6%E4%B8%81%E5%A0%A1" title="君士坦丁堡">君士坦丁堡</a>,而西欧学术则集中于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E9%81%93%E9%99%A2" title="修道院">修道院</a>,一直到12到13世纪的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="中世紀大學">中世纪大学</a>发展才有所转变。修道院学校的课程包括研究少数允许的古籍和医学方面的新尝试。<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>与此同时,希腊哲学已经在中东世界的<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="阿拉伯帝国">阿拉伯帝国</a>获得了一定支持。在7至8世纪间,<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%99" title="伊斯兰教">伊斯兰教</a>蓬勃发展,使<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E6%96%AF%E6%9E%97" title="穆斯林">穆斯林</a>学术研究迎来<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E9%BB%83%E9%87%91%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="伊斯蘭黃金時代">伊斯蘭黃金時代</a>,并延续到15世纪。其中原因有以下几个:中东通行的<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="阿拉伯语">阿拉伯语</a>使各国的科学技术交流得以无障碍地进行下去。从<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BB%B7%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="拜占廷帝国">拜占廷帝国</a>得到的希腊和罗马科技文章与印度传来的研究成果为中东的科技研究提供了一个完整的根基。<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E8%A7%90_(%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%99)" title="朝觐 (伊斯兰教)">麦加朝圣</a>也给了全伊斯兰世界的科技学者们合作交流的机会。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="伊斯蘭的科學"><span id=".E4.BC.8A.E6.96.AF.E8.98.AD.E7.9A.84.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>伊斯蘭的科學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=12" title="编辑章节:伊斯蘭的科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg/150px-Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg/225px-Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg/300px-Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1087" /></a><figcaption>15世纪时的伊斯兰医学文章</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊斯兰科学史(页面不存在)">伊斯兰科学史</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="伊斯蘭科學">伊斯兰科学</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">更多信息:<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4%E8%BD%B4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊斯兰科技时间轴(页面不存在)">伊斯兰科技时间轴</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊斯兰化学(页面不存在)">伊斯兰化学</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊斯兰天文学(页面不存在)">伊斯兰天文学</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊斯兰数学(页面不存在)">伊斯兰数学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="伊斯兰医学">伊斯兰医学</a></div> <p>伊斯兰科学家对<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E9%AA%8C" title="实验">实验</a>的重视远超过希腊人。<sup id="cite_ref-Briffault_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briffault-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E4%BB%80%E6%9C%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="海什木">海什木</a>開創了對<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="實驗物理學">實驗物理學</a>的研究,他是現代<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="光學">光學</a>的開拓者,其著作《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8%E6%9B%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="光學書(页面不存在)">光學書</a>》倡議實驗科學方法。 <sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>科學方法最重要的發展是<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" class="mw-redirect" title="實驗">實驗</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%8C%96" class="mw-disambig" title="量化">量化</a>的應用。海什木是首位採用科學方法的人,被視為「第一位科學家」。<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E6%96%AF" title="波斯">波斯</a>数学家<a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E6%8B%89%E5%AD%90%E5%AF%86" class="mw-redirect" title="花拉子密">花拉子密</a>在数学上作出了杰出的贡献。现在通行的“<a href="/wiki/%E7%AE%97%E6%B3%95" title="算法">算法</a>”(Algorithm)即是从他的名字演变而来。<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>“代数学”(Algebra)一词则是由他的一本著作“al-jabr”演变而来的。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E9%AD%AF%E5%B0%BC" title="比魯尼">比魯尼</a>是第一位詳盡闡述天體現象實驗及從<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E7%BE%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="語義學">語義</a>上區分天文學與<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A0%E6%98%9F%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="占星學">占星學</a>的學者<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。天文學家運用實驗觀察和實驗技術去觀測天文<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E4%BB%80%E6%9C%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="海什木">海什木</a>發現天球並非<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="固體">固體</a>及高空的密度較低空為低<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,他和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E6%B2%99%E6%8F%90%E7%88%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊本·沙提爾(页面不存在)">伊本·沙提爾</a>(Ibn al-Shatir)將<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="自然哲學">自然哲學</a>從天文學拆分出來<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。海什木又和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A9%86%E8%89%BE%E8%91%89%E5%BE%B7%E4%B8%81%C2%B7%E7%83%8F%E7%88%BE%E8%BF%AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="穆艾葉德丁·烏爾迪(页面不存在)">穆艾葉德丁·烏爾迪</a>(Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi)構造了第一個非托密斯模型。伊本·沙提爾以實驗為依據,而不以<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="哲學">哲學</a>為依據來駁斥托密斯模型。<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E8%A5%BF%E5%B0%94%E4%B8%81%C2%B7%E5%9B%BE%E8%A5%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="纳西尔丁·图西">納西爾丁·圖西</a>及<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E9%87%8C%C2%B7%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%80%E5%90%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿里·古什吉(页面不存在)">阿里·古什吉</a>(Ali al-Qushji)首次以實驗觀察來證明<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E8%87%AA%E8%BD%AC" title="地球自转">地球自轉</a>,還有<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AF%94%E9%87%8C%E5%AE%89%E8%BF%AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="比里安迪(页面不存在)">比里安迪</a>(Al-Birjandi)的早期「圓慣性」原理<sup id="cite_ref-Tusi_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tusi-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。多位穆斯林天文學家也推測地球沿其軸心自轉,並提出<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E5%BF%83%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="日心說">日心說</a>的假說<sup id="cite_ref-Miracle_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miracle-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。眾所周知,在以太陽為中心的背景下,<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E5%93%A5%E7%99%BD%E5%B0%BC" title="尼古拉·哥白尼">尼古拉·哥白尼</a>在《<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93%E8%BF%90%E8%A1%8C%E8%AE%BA" title="天体运行论">天體運行論</a>》裡提出的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%A5%E7%99%BD%E5%B0%BC%E6%97%A5%E5%BF%83%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="哥白尼日心模型(页面不存在)">哥白尼日心模型</a>(Copernican heliocentric model)是取自<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E6%B2%99%E6%8F%90%E7%88%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊本·沙提爾(页面不存在)">伊本·沙提爾</a>及馬拉蓋學派的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%BF%83%E8%AF%B4" title="地心说">地心說</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,哥白尼所主張的地球自轉與納西爾丁·圖西及阿里·古什吉的觀點近似<sup id="cite_ref-Tusi_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tusi-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>阿拉伯<a href="/wiki/%E7%82%BC%E9%87%91%E6%9C%AF" title="炼金术">炼金术</a>虽然严格地说不算是科学,但是其主要思想影响了<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E6%9D%B0%C2%B7%E5%9F%B9%E6%A0%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="罗杰·培根">罗杰·培根</a>,使他发明了实验理论。<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>阿拉伯炼金术也对<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%90%A8%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A1%BF" title="艾萨克·牛顿">艾萨克·牛顿</a>有很大影响。<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>伊斯蘭黃金時代其他的一些知名科學家包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E6%8B%89%E6%AF%94" title="法拉比">法拉比</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E9%AD%AF%E5%B0%BC" title="比魯尼">比魯尼</a>(最早的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="人類學">人類學</a>家及<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%9C%B0%E6%B5%8B%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%A6" title="大地测量学">大地測量學</a>的開創者)<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E8%A5%BF%E5%B0%94%E4%B8%81%C2%B7%E5%9B%BE%E8%A5%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="纳西尔丁·图西">納西爾丁·圖西</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%8B%92%E6%95%A6" title="伊本·赫勒敦">伊本·赫勒敦</a>(被視為<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="社會科學">社會科學</a>一些範疇的開創者<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,如<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3%E5%AD%A6" title="人口学">人口學</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="經濟學">經濟學</a><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%8F%B2" title="文化史">文化史</a><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="歷史學">歷史學</a><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>及<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="社會學">社會學</a><sup id="cite_ref-Akhtar_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akhtar-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="從十二世紀復興的歐洲科學"><span id=".E5.BE.9E.E5.8D.81.E4.BA.8C.E4.B8.96.E7.B4.80.E5.BE.A9.E8.88.88.E7.9A.84.E6.AD.90.E6.B4.B2.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>從十二世紀復興的歐洲科學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=13" title="编辑章节:從十二世紀復興的歐洲科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%97%9D%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88" class="mw-redirect" title="文藝復興">文藝復興</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg/220px-Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg/330px-Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg/440px-Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1127" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption>中世纪大学分佈地圖</figcaption></figure> <p>十二世紀歐洲出現了<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="中世紀大學">中世紀大學</a>,標誌著知識界在歐洲復興。同時<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E8%BB%8D%E6%9D%B1%E5%BE%81" title="十字軍東征">十字軍東征</a>使歐洲開始與伊斯蘭世界接觸。頻繁的通商容許了文化的交流,令教廷在知識上壟斷地位,受到前所未有的衝擊。舉例十二世紀<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9" title="意大利">意大利</a>旅行家<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%8F%AF%E6%B3%A2%E7%BE%85" class="mw-redirect" title="馬可波羅">馬可波羅</a>到<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B" title="中國">中國</a>旅遊,並在回國後著有《<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%8F%AF%E6%B3%A2%E7%BD%97%E6%B8%B8%E8%AE%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="马可波罗游记">馬可波羅遊記</a>》,使歐洲人的眼界有所擴闊。 </p><p>種種因素都助長了<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%97%9D%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88" class="mw-redirect" title="文藝復興">文藝復興</a>的興起。城市在<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9" title="意大利">意大利</a>崛起,住有大量新資產階級。他們都信奉<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9C%96%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="新柏拉圖主義">新柏拉圖主義</a>,希望擺脫宗教禁欲主義的束縛,大力保護藝術家對世俗生活的描繪。與此同時<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%96%E6%96%B9%E6%BF%9F%E5%90%84%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="聖方濟各會">聖方濟各會</a>的宗教激進主義,力圖摒棄正統宗教的經院哲學,歌頌自然的美和人的精神價值。這時<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E6%95%99%E5%BB%B7" title="羅馬教廷">羅馬教廷</a>也在走向腐敗,歷屆教宗的享樂規模,比一般民眾還要厲害。他們也在保護藝術家,允許藝術偏離正統的宗教教條。哲學、科學都在逐漸地在比較寬鬆的氣氛中發展,也醞釀著宗教改革的前奏。 </p><p>這段期間最為明顯的變化乃天文學。當時教廷強調「<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E5%8B%95%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="天動說">天動說</a>」,認為太陽是圍繞著地球旋轉。<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E8%98%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="波蘭">波蘭</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%A5%E7%99%BD%E5%B0%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="哥白尼">哥白尼</a>是第一位提出太陽為中心——日心說的歐洲天文學家,一般認為他寫作的《<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93%E8%BF%90%E8%A1%8C%E8%AE%BA" title="天体运行论">天體運行論</a>》是現代天文學的起步點。其後經意大利科學家<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="伽利略">伽利略</a>的提倡,「<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%8B%95%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="地動說">地動說</a>」開始傳播甚廣,進而導致教廷把其軟禁。 </p><p>這時的科學發展乃自古希臘以來最為發達,其發達程度甚至超越了古希臘時代。如伽利略便最先使用科學實驗和<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="數學">數學</a>分析的方法研究<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="力學">力學</a>。他認為選擇得當的數學證明,可以用來探索任何牽涉到定量性的問題。同時期的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E6%99%AE%E5%8B%92" class="mw-redirect" title="开普勒">开普勒</a>除了在天文上提出了嶄新的見解外,還首度以<a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%BE%E4%BD%95" class="mw-redirect" title="幾何">幾何</a>概念發展出<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="光學">光學</a>概念。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="科學革命"><span id=".E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8.E9.9D.A9.E5.91.BD"></span>科學革命</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=14" title="编辑章节:科學革命"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="科學革命">科學革命</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1543,_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica,_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/200px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/300px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/400px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1346" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E5%BE%B7%E7%83%88%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E8%B5%9B%E7%95%99%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="安德烈·维赛留斯">維賽留斯</a>人體解剖實驗</figcaption></figure> <p>文藝復興使歐洲知識界重視生機,不但<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學">天文學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="數學">數學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="物理學">物理學</a>,包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學">化學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E8%97%A5" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="醫藥">醫藥</a>等領域都有創新見解。其對科學所產生的影響力,至今仍非常深遠。大多科學史專家都認為十四至十八世紀乃<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="科學革命">科學革命</a>的年代。其中部分更認為自<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%A5%E7%99%BD%E5%B0%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="哥白尼">哥白尼</a>於1543年出版著作《<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93%E8%BF%90%E8%A1%8C%E8%AE%BA" title="天体运行论">天體運行論</a>》開始,歐洲已踏入科學革命時代。 </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/200px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/300px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/400px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%96%A9%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="艾薩克·牛頓">艾薩克·牛頓</a></figcaption></figure> <p>在這段時期的科學思想家包括: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E5%BE%B7%E7%83%88%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E8%B5%9B%E7%95%99%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="安德烈·维赛留斯">安德烈·維賽留斯</a>:1543年出版了《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%BA%E9%AB%94%E6%A7%8B%E9%80%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="人體構造(页面不存在)">人體構造</a>》,解釋了<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E6%B6%B2" title="血液">血液</a>在人體內循環的過程,還從解剖屍體組裝了第一副人類骨架。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9" title="威廉·吉尔伯特">威廉·吉爾伯特</a>:1600年出版了《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AB%96%E7%A3%81%E7%9F%B3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="論磁石(页面不存在)">論磁石</a>》,是物理學史上第一部系統闡述<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="磁學">磁學</a>的專著。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E8%B0%B7%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%8B%89%E8%B5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="第谷·布拉赫">第谷·布拉赫</a>:對十六世紀末期所認知的星體進行了詳細並且準確的觀測,為<a href="/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E6%99%AE%E5%8B%92" class="mw-redirect" title="開普勒">開普勒</a>的研究提供了基本數據。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E5%85%B0%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%9F%B9%E6%A0%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="弗兰西斯·培根">弗蘭西斯·培根</a>:通過分析和確定科學的一般方法和表明其應用方式,給予新科學運動以發展的動力和方向。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E5%93%88%E7%BB%B4" title="威廉·哈维">威廉·哈維</a>:通過解剖等手段展示了血液的循環。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E5%A5%88%C2%B7%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="勒奈·笛卡尔">勒奈·笛卡爾</a>:<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E7%B9%B9" class="mw-disambig" title="演繹">演繹</a>推理的先驅,1637年出版了《<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="方法論">方法論</a>》。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%9D%B1%C2%B7%E8%8C%83%C2%B7%E5%88%97%E6%96%87%E9%9C%8D%E5%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="安東·范·列文霍克">安東·范·列文霍克</a>:建造了高清晰度的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%96%AE%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="單顯微鏡(页面不存在)">單顯微鏡</a>,研究了<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AF%9B%E7%B4%B0%E7%AE%A1%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="毛細管循環(页面不存在)">毛細管循環</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%82%8C%E8%82%89" title="肌肉">肌肉</a>纖維。他觀察了<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E7%90%83" class="mw-redirect" title="血球">血球</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E5%AD%90" title="精子">精子</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="細菌">細菌</a>,並繪出了它們的形象。於1683年發現了<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="細菌">細菌</a>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%96%A9%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="艾薩克·牛頓">艾薩克·牛頓</a>:1687年7月5日發表的《<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E7%9A%84%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="自然哲學的數學原理">自然哲學的數學原理</a>》,提出的<a href="/wiki/%E8%90%AC%E6%9C%89%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="萬有引力定律">萬有引力定律</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="牛頓運動定律">牛頓運動定律</a>,是<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E5%85%B8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="經典力學">經典力學</a>的基石。牛頓還和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%B1%E5%B8%83%E5%B0%BC%E8%8C%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="莱布尼茨">萊布尼茨</a>各自獨立地發明了<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%A9%8D%E5%88%86" class="mw-redirect" title="微積分">微積分</a>。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="現代科學"><span id=".E7.8F.BE.E4.BB.A3.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>現代科學</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=15" title="编辑章节:現代科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>科學革命使世界科學推上了一個前所未有的巔峰。它使科學知識內容大大擴充,而絕大多數都是今日研習科學者必須認識到的知識,例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%8B%95%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="地動說">地動說</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="牛頓運動定律">牛頓運動定律</a>等等。到了十九世紀,科學研究已變得相當具系統,並分成不同派別,一直延至二十世紀。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="自然科學"><span id=".E8.87.AA.E7.84.B6.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>自然科學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=16" title="编辑章节:自然科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Universe_expansion-zh.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Universe_expansion-zh.png/220px-Universe_expansion-zh.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Universe_expansion-zh.png/330px-Universe_expansion-zh.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Universe_expansion-zh.png/440px-Universe_expansion-zh.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>擴張中宇宙圖解</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="物理學"><span id=".E7.89.A9.E7.90.86.E5.AD.B8"></span>物理學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=17" title="编辑章节:物理學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="物理學史">物理學史</a></div> <p>在<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="物理">物理</a>史上,<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="科學革命">科學革命</a>乃古希臘時代科學哲學和古典物理的<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%B0%B4%E5%B2%AD" title="分水岭">分水嶺</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E8%98%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="波蘭">波蘭</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%A5%E7%99%BD%E5%B0%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="哥白尼">哥白尼</a>首先以<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E5%BF%83%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="日心說">日心說</a>否定了過去人們一直深信不疑的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E5%8B%95%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="天動說">天動說</a>。其後<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="德國">德國</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E6%99%AE%E5%8B%92" class="mw-redirect" title="開普勒">開普勒</a>也發展出其行星運行的模型,提出<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%98%9F" title="行星">行星</a>乃按其軌跡而圍繞著太陽運行。同時<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9" title="意大利">意大利</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="伽利略">伽利略</a>除不斷強調其<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%8B%95%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="地動說">地動說</a>外,還發展出多項基本的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="力學">力學</a>理論。 </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg/130px-Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg/195px-Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg/260px-Albert_Einstein_Head.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3250" data-file-height="4333" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="愛因斯坦">愛因斯坦</a></figcaption></figure> <p>到了1687年,<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="英國">英國</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="牛頓">牛頓</a>出版了《<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E7%9A%84%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="自然哲學的數學原理">自然哲學的數學原理</a>》,詳細地說明了兩個既複雜又成功的物理理論:<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="牛頓運動定律">牛頓運動定律</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%90%AC%E6%9C%89%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="萬有引力定律">萬有引力定律</a>,皆建立了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="古典力學">古典力學</a>的根基。<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="電子">電子</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%8A%9B" class="mw-redirect" title="磁力">磁力</a>的研究以英國人<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E6%8B%89%E7%AC%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="法拉第">法拉第</a>和德國人<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E5%A7%86" title="歐姆">歐姆</a>為首,時為十九世紀。 </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg/220px-Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg/330px-Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg/440px-Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>原子彈的發明標誌著物理學又一巔峰</figcaption></figure> <p>二十世紀初的物理學也出現了革命性變化,代表者為<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="愛因斯坦">愛因斯坦</a>。他於1905年發表了四篇劃時代的論文,分別為:《關於光的產生和轉化的一個啟發性觀點》、《根據分子運動論研究靜止液體中懸浮微粒的運動》、《論運動物體的電動力學》、《物體慣性與其所含能量有關嗎?》,隨後導出了E = mc²的公式。這被統稱作<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="相對論">相對論</a>,主要是對牛頓力學的概念作出了修正。這對物理學也影響深遠,因為愛因斯坦的理論,根本性地修訂了過往科學界深信的知識,時到今天仍然備受討論。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="二次大戰">二次大戰</a>期間出現了更多發明。這包括了<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%B7%E9%81%94" class="mw-redirect" title="雷達">雷達</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%BD%88" class="mw-redirect" title="原子彈">原子彈</a>。這些技術日後皆被各國政府用作軍事上,對日後的軍事技術產生深遠影響。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="化學"><span id=".E5.8C.96.E5.AD.B8"></span>化學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=18" title="编辑章节:化學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="化學史">化學史</a></div> <p>現代<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學">化學</a>的歷史在科學革命年代,早已由<a href="/wiki/%E7%85%89%E9%87%91%E8%A1%93" class="mw-redirect" title="煉金術">煉金術</a>轉化到現代化學領域。1661年<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E7%88%BE%E8%98%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="愛爾蘭">愛爾蘭</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="波義耳">波義耳</a>發現了<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%A3%E9%AB%94%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="氣體定律(页面不存在)">氣體定律</a>。其後<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法國">法國</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E7%93%A6%E9%94%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="拉瓦锡">拉瓦錫</a>更有前瞻性理論──對過去人們深信不疑的<a href="/wiki/%E7%87%83%E7%B4%A0%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="燃素說">燃素說</a>作出全面否定;倡導<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F%E5%AE%88%E6%81%86%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="質量守恆定律">質量守恆定律</a>,指出物質作轉化時其質量不變。同時他還推論,動物的呼吸實質上是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B7%A9%E6%85%A2%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="緩慢氧化(页面不存在)">緩慢氧化</a>。 </p><p>踏入十九世紀,又有<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="英國">英國</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%81%93%E7%88%BE%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="約翰·道爾頓">道爾頓</a>確立了「物質是由粒子組成」的理論。1869年<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="俄羅斯">俄羅斯</a>人<a href="/wiki/%E9%96%80%E5%BE%97%E5%88%97%E5%A4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="門得列夫">門得列夫</a>編製了<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E9%80%B1%E6%9C%9F%E8%A1%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="元素週期表">元素週期表</a>,把物質中數十個<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="元素">元素</a>列舉出來。這兩人的研究對日後也影響深遠,前者為日後的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="粒子理論(页面不存在)">粒子理論</a>奠下基礎;後者則成為了化學的基本知識。今日的化學教科書,都少不了元素週期表。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="地質學"><span id=".E5.9C.B0.E8.B3.AA.E5.AD.B8"></span>地質學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=19" title="编辑章节:地質學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="地质学史">地質學史</a></div> <p>遠在十一世紀,中國的科學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%88%E6%8B%AC" title="沈括">沈括</a>已率先提出了地形結構的原理。他從原油的產地觀察,認為原油產地過去乃海洋一片,後因地形轉化,使部分物質轉化為原油。 </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wegener.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wegener.jpg/200px-Wegener.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wegener.jpg/300px-Wegener.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wegener.jpg/400px-Wegener.jpg 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%BF%E5%A1%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="板塊">板塊</a>學說,描述了地球面貌的形成</figcaption></figure> <p>而在西歐,學界一直相信<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%A5%A7%E5%BC%97%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E6%89%98%E6%96%AF" title="泰奧弗拉斯托斯">泰奧弗拉斯托斯</a>對岩石的解說,一直到科學革命為止。1700年,兩位<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法國">法國</a>人<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="簡恩-艾田·古德達" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Jean-Etienne Guettard"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B0%A1%E6%81%A9-%E8%89%BE%E7%94%B0%C2%B7%E5%8F%A4%E5%BE%B7%E9%81%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="簡恩-艾田·古德達(页面不存在)">簡恩-艾田·古德達</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Etienne_Guettard" class="extiw" title="en:Jean-Etienne Guettard"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Jean-Etienne Guettard</span></a></span>)</span></span>和<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="尼可拉斯·德斯馬拉特" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Nicolas Desmarest"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%AF%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%E9%A6%AC%E6%8B%89%E7%89%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="尼可拉斯·德斯馬拉特(页面不存在)">尼可拉斯·德斯馬拉特</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Desmarest" class="extiw" title="en:Nicolas Desmarest"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Nicolas Desmarest</span></a></span>)</span></span>在法國中部行山,並把他們觀察紀錄成一地圖。前者記錄了首個火山的觀察。1788年<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E9%A1%BF" title="詹姆斯·赫顿">詹姆斯·赫頓</a>出版其著作《<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E9%A1%BF" title="詹姆斯·赫顿">地球的理論</a>》,其理論被稱作<a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%87%E8%AE%8A%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="均變學說">均變學說</a>。 </p><p>1811年兩位法國動物學家<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AC%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E5%B1%85%E7%B6%AD%E8%91%89" title="喬治·居維葉">喬治·居維葉</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E6%AD%B7%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E9%9A%86%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E7%88%BE" title="亞歷山大·布隆尼亞爾">亞歷山大·布隆尼亞爾</a>出版了一著作,從他們在<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E" title="巴黎">巴黎</a>發現的大象化石,闡述了他們對地球結構的看法。這個觀點後來成為<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%B1%82%E5%AD%A6" title="地层学">地層學</a>的重要理論基礎。而英國人<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E7%90%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%90%8A%E7%88%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="查理斯·萊爾">查理斯·萊爾</a>的《<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%AD%A6%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="地质学原理">地質學原理</a>》更把詹姆士‧赫頓觀點進一步強化,影響日後<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%94%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87" class="mw-redirect" title="達爾文">達爾文</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化">演化論</a>。 </p><p>到了二十世紀,地質學更有革命性看法。以<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%8B%E6%A0%BC%E7%B4%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="韋格納">韋格納</a>為代表的「<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%BF%E5%A1%8A%E6%A7%8B%E9%80%A0%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="板塊構造理論">板塊構造理論</a>」,把地球外殼由板塊組成的觀點進一步擴大。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="天文學"><span id=".E5.A4.A9.E6.96.87.E5.AD.B8"></span>天文學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=20" title="编辑章节:天文學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="天文學史">天文學史</a></div> <p>天文在科學革命以降受到光學儀器漸發達影響,也可圈可點。1801年<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%80%E7%A5%9E%E6%98%9F" title="穀神星">穀神星</a>被發現;1846年<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E7%8E%8B%E6%98%9F" title="海王星">海王星</a>也被發現。 </p><p>二十世紀中來自美國的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E8%8E%AB%E5%A4%AB" title="乔治·伽莫夫">喬治·伽莫夫</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E8%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="拉尔夫·阿尔菲">拉爾夫·阿爾菲</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E7%88%BE%E6%9B%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="羅伯特·赫爾曼">羅伯特·赫爾曼</a>,通過計算推論出有證據顯示,宇宙間曾有大<a href="/wiki/%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8" title="爆炸">爆炸</a>的痕跡。這些證據被視為計算宇宙歷史的基礎。 </p><p>其後六十年代<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="美國">美國</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%98%87%E8%81%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="蘇聯">蘇聯</a>開始進太空科技競賽,計有1961年蘇聯派出世界第一個<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="太空人">太空人</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E5%8A%A0%E6%9E%97" class="mw-redirect" title="加加林">加加林</a>登上太空;後美國也派出<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E5%A3%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="尼爾·阿姆斯壯">岩士唐</a>等太空人升空,歷史性地首次登陸<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%88%E7%90%83" title="月球">月球</a>。其後各項太空發明相繼面世,包括<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%80%A0%E8%A1%9B%E6%98%9F" title="人造衛星">人造衛星</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E7%AE%AD" title="火箭">火箭</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BF%E6%A2%AD%E6%A9%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="穿梭機">穿梭機</a>等等。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="生物學、醫學和遺傳學"><span id=".E7.94.9F.E7.89.A9.E5.AD.B8.E3.80.81.E9.86.AB.E5.AD.B8.E5.92.8C.E9.81.BA.E5.82.B3.E5.AD.B8"></span>生物學、醫學和遺傳學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=21" title="编辑章节:生物學、醫學和遺傳學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dna-split.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Dna-split.png/140px-Dna-split.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Dna-split.png 1.5x" data-file-width="202" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/DNA%E8%A4%87%E8%A3%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA複製">DNA複製</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="生物學史">生物學史</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="分子生物學史">分子生物學史</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="醫學史">醫學史</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%8F%B2" title="演化思想史">演化思想史</a></div> <p>1847年<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9" title="匈牙利">匈牙利</a>物理學家<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%A0%BC%E7%B4%8D%E8%8C%B2%C2%B7%E5%A1%9E%E9%BA%A5%E7%88%BE%E7%B6%AD%E6%96%AF" title="伊格納茲·塞麥爾維斯">伊格納茲·塞麥爾維斯</a>戲劇性地發現減低孕婦患上<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%A2%E5%BE%8C%E7%86%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="產後熱(页面不存在)">產後熱</a>機會的技術──在孕婦生產時協助她們清洗頭部。提前了<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E8%87%B4%E7%97%85%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="微生物致病論(页面不存在)">微生物致病論</a>的發現,不過斯姆威爾茲的發現在當時並未受到重視。直到1865年,由英國外科醫師<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E6%9D%8E%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="約瑟夫·李斯特">約瑟夫·李斯特</a>證實了<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B6%88%E6%AF%92%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="消毒法(页面不存在)">消毒法</a>之後,微生物致病論才得以應用。李斯特的研究是基於法國生物學家<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E5%BE%B7" title="路易·巴斯德">路易·巴斯德</a>的重要發現,巴斯德連結了疾病與微生物的關係,造成醫學的革命。此外他在1880年所生產的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%82%E7%8A%AC%E7%97%85" title="狂犬病">狂犬病</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%96%AB%E8%8B%97" title="疫苗">疫苗</a>,使<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%90%E9%98%B2%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="預防醫學">預防醫學</a>上的重要方法誕生。巴斯德發明了一種稱為<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E5%BE%B7%E6%AE%BA%E8%8F%8C%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="巴斯德殺菌法">巴斯德殺菌法</a>的技術,防止疾病經由牛奶或食物傳遞。 </p><p>1859年,英國博物學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87" title="查尔斯·达尔文">查爾斯·達爾文</a>在《<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="物种起源">物種起源</a>》中,首先提出了以<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E9%81%B8%E6%93%87" class="mw-redirect" title="自然選擇">自然選擇</a>為主的<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化">演化</a>理論,這可能是科學上最為顯著,且影響深遠的一個理論。達爾文提出各種不同的動物,是經歷了長時間的自然進程之後成形,甚至連人類也是如此演化而來的生物。演化論引起了社會上的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E7%9A%84%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%BD%B1%E9%9F%BF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="演化理論的社會影響(页面不存在)">反對和支持</a>聲浪,並深切地影響了大眾對於「人類在宇宙中的地位」之理解。到了20世紀早期的1900年代,奧地利僧侶<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E9%87%8C%E5%93%A5%C2%B7%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="格里哥·孟德尔">格里哥·孟德爾</a>在1866年所發展的遺傳定律被重新發現,之後遺傳成為了主要的研究對象。孟德爾定律是<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="遺傳學">遺傳學</a>研究的起始關鍵,此學門也成為科學與產業上的主要研究領域之一。1953年,<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%B2%83%E6%A3%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="詹姆斯·沃森">詹姆斯·沃森</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%9C%97%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="佛朗西斯·克里克">佛朗西斯·克里克</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E8%8E%8E%E7%90%B3%C2%B7%E5%AF%8C%E5%85%B0%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97" class="mw-redirect" title="罗莎琳·富兰克林">罗莎琳·富兰克林</a>闡明了<a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a>,也就是使所有生物型態得以表現的<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="遺傳物質">遺傳物質</a>的基本結構<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。到了20世紀晚期,<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="遺傳工程">遺傳工程</a>的可能性,使首次的大規模國際性計畫,也就是解開人類的整個<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組">基因組</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84%E8%A8%88%E7%95%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="人類基因組計畫">人類基因組計畫</a>在1990年代展開。此研究結果在<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="分子生物学">分子生物学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="醫學">醫學</a>上有相當大的利用價值。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="生態學"><span id=".E7.94.9F.E6.85.8B.E5.AD.B8"></span>生態學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=22" title="编辑章节:生態學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="生態學史(页面不存在)">生態學史</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg/220px-NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg/330px-NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg/440px-NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NASA" class="mw-redirect" title="NASA">NASA</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%B3%A2%E7%BE%858%E8%99%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="阿波羅8號">阿波羅8號</a>所拍攝,<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%88%E7%90%83" title="月球">月球</a>上所見的地球樣貌。從此照片可見<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%B3%87%E6%BA%90" class="mw-redirect" title="自然資源">自然資源</a>在地球對生物的豐富,以及在月球上的缺乏。</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="生態學">生態學</a>學科的起源,一般可追溯到19世紀末到20世紀初,<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化">達爾文演化論</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%86%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E5%86%AF%C2%B7%E6%B4%AA%E5%A0%A1" title="亚历山大·冯·洪堡">洪堡</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="生物地理學">生物地理學</a>的融合。此外,<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="微生物學">微生物學</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%A4%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="土壤科學">土壤科學</a>對於生態學的開端也相當重要,尤其是<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E5%BE%B7" title="路易·巴斯德">路易·巴斯德</a>與<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B2%BB%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E7%A7%91%E6%81%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="費迪南·科恩(页面不存在)">費迪南·科恩</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E8%B3%AA%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="生物地質化學循環">生命週期</a>概念。「生態學」(<i>ecology</i>)一詞是由<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%B5%B7%E5%85%8B%E5%B0%94" title="恩斯特·海克尔">恩斯特·海克爾</a>所鑄造,主要是以整體觀點(以及達爾文理論的輔助)來研究自然界,對於是生態學思想的散佈相當重要。1930年代,<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%9E%E7%91%9F%C2%B7%E8%AD%9A%E6%96%AF%E9%9B%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="亞瑟·譚斯雷(页面不存在)">亞瑟·譚斯雷</a>與其他人開始發展<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="生態系生態學(页面不存在)">生態系生態學</a>領域,統合了實驗性質的土壤科學,以及<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="博物学">田野生物學</a>的生理能量概念與研究方法。20世紀的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%AF%E5%A2%83%E4%BF%9D%E6%8A%A4%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="环境保护主义">環境保護主義</a>與生態學有密切的聯繫,1960年代的<a href="/wiki/%E8%93%8B%E4%BA%9E%E5%81%87%E8%AA%AA" title="蓋亞假說">蓋亞假說</a>,以及較晚近的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%B1%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="深生態學">深生態學</a>上的科學-宗教運動,使兩者關係更為密切。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="社會科學"><span id=".E7.A4.BE.E6.9C.83.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="社會科學">社會科學</a></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=23" title="编辑章节:社會科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="社会科学史">社會科學史</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="政治科學"><span id=".E6.94.BF.E6.B2.BB.E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8"></span>政治科學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=24" title="编辑章节:政治科學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="政治学史">政治学史</a></div> <p>对政治的研究最早可见于<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="西方文化">西方文化</a>中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊">古希腊</a>,政治学是在<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="社会科学">社会科学</a>出现后方产生的术语。然而,这门学科确有一系列先驱,如<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学">伦理学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="政治哲学">政治哲学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="政治经济学">政治经济学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="历史学">历史学</a>等等,以及有关理想化的政府所应具备的特征和运作方式的探究。在每个历史阶段和每个地区,都可以找到研究政治和试图不断增进对政治理解的人物。 </p><p>政治学研究可以溯源到<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德">亚里士多德</a>以前的<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%B7%E9%A9%AC" title="荷马">荷马</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E8%A5%BF%E4%BF%84%E5%BE%B7" title="赫西俄德">赫西俄德</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E6%98%94%E5%BA%95%E5%BE%B7" title="修昔底德">修昔底德</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E8%AF%BA%E8%8A%AC" title="色诺芬">色诺芬</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E9%87%8C%E5%BA%87%E5%BE%97%E6%96%AF" title="欧里庇得斯">欧里庇得斯</a>的著作。后来,柏拉图研究了政治系统,他将以往的文学和历史角度的分析抽象化,使用了一种我们可以理解为类似<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学">哲学</a>研究的方法。亚里斯多德在柏拉图的基础上,建立了基于历史经验证据的研究方法。 </p><p>在古罗马统治时期,著名历史学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E9%87%8C%E5%BA%87%E5%BE%97%E6%96%AF" title="欧里庇得斯">欧里庇得斯</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%82%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E6%9D%8E%E7%BB%B4" title="蒂托·李维">蒂托·李维</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%AD%AF%E5%A1%94%E5%85%8B" title="普魯塔克">普魯塔克</a>记录了罗马共和国的兴起,以及其他国家的历史和起源,同时象<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%BA%E6%92%92" class="mw-redirect" title="恺撒">恺撒</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E%E7%BD%97" title="西塞罗">西塞罗</a>等政治家为我们提供了罗马共和国和帝国的战争和政治生活画面。这个时代的政治学研究关注于理解历史,治理方法和政府运作方式。 </p><p>随着<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="罗马帝国">罗马帝国</a>的衰落,政治研究的领域蔓延开来。西方传统上的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%80%E7%A5%9E%E6%95%99" class="mw-redirect" title="一神教">一神教</a>兴起,特别是<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99" title="基督教">基督教</a>为政治和政治行为打开了新的空间。在<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA" title="中世纪">中世纪</a>,对政治的研究遍及教会和法庭。<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%A3%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%81" class="mw-redirect" title="圣奥古斯丁">圣奥古斯丁</a>的《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E5%B8%9D%E4%B9%8B%E5%9F%8E" title="上帝之城">上帝之城</a>》一类的著作将当时的哲学和政治传统与基督教相融合,重新定义了宗教与政治的界限。大部分有关政府与宗教的问题在这一时期得到辩论和澄清。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="語言學"><span id=".E8.AA.9E.E8.A8.80.E5.AD.B8"></span>語言學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=25" title="编辑章节:語言學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="語言學史">語言學史</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="經濟學"><span id=".E7.B6.93.E6.BF.9F.E5.AD.B8"></span>經濟學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=26" title="编辑章节:經濟學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="經濟思想史">經濟思想史</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-P.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Supply-demand-P.png/130px-Supply-demand-P.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Supply-demand-P.png/195px-Supply-demand-P.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Supply-demand-P.png/260px-Supply-demand-P.png 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%9B%E7%BB%99%E5%92%8C%E9%9C%80%E6%B1%82" class="mw-redirect" title="供给和需求">供求</a>模型</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="古典经济学">古典經濟學</a>的基礎是來自<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%BD%93%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%AF%86" title="亚当·斯密">亚当·斯密</a>於1776年出版的《<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AF%8C%E8%AB%96" title="國富論">國富論</a>》。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%BD%93%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%AF%86" title="亚当·斯密">亚当·斯密</a>批評<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%95%86%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="重商主義">重商主義</a>,提倡“<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%B7%A5" title="分工">分工</a>”的自由貿易體系。它假定有一隻“看不見的手”藉由個人追求自身利益而使得巨大的經濟體系得以自我規範。<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="馬克思">馬克思</a>建立了一個替代的經濟體系,叫做“馬克思經濟學”(Marxian economics)。馬克思經濟學是以<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%9E%E5%8B%95%E5%83%B9%E5%80%BC%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="勞動價值理論">勞動價值理論</a>為基礎來運作的,並假設商品的價值主要是來自於生產時所需勞力的投入。在此假設之下,“<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E6%9C%AC%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="資本主義">資本主義</a>”的雇主就未付出足夠的報酬合於勞工所生產的利益。而<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A7%E5%9C%B0%E5%88%A9%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="奧地利經濟學派">奧地利經濟學派</a>則認為實業家才是經濟發展的驅動力,並利用<a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%9B%E7%B5%A6%E5%92%8C%E9%9C%80%E6%B1%82" class="mw-redirect" title="供給和需求">供給和需求</a>來取代<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%9E%E5%8B%95%E5%83%B9%E5%80%BC%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="勞動價值理論">勞動價值理論</a>。 </p><p>在1920年代,<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E7%BA%B3%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%87%AF%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF" title="约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯">凯恩斯</a>主張區分<a href="/wiki/%E7%B8%BD%E9%AB%94%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="總體經濟學">總體經濟學</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%80%8B%E9%AB%94%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="個體經濟學">個體經濟學</a>。在<a href="/wiki/%E5%87%B1%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="凱恩斯主義">凱恩斯主義</a>架構之下,<a href="/wiki/%E7%B8%BD%E9%AB%94%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="總體經濟學">總體經濟學</a>趨向個人造成"整體"的經濟學選擇。政府應提升對商品的總體需求來刺激經濟擴張。在<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="第二次世界大戰">第二次世界大戰</a>時,<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E7%88%BE%E9%A0%93%C2%B7%E5%82%85%E5%88%A9%E6%9B%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="米爾頓·傅利曼">米爾頓·傅利曼</a>創造了<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%A8%E5%B9%A3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="貨幣主義">貨幣主義</a>的概念。貨幣主義關注使用金錢的供給與需求來作為控制經濟活動的方法。在1970年代,<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%A8%E5%B9%A3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="貨幣主義">貨幣主義</a>轉變為<a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%9B%E7%B5%A6%E9%9D%A2%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="供給面經濟學">供給面經濟學</a>,是以減稅作為增加貨幣流通量進而促使經濟擴張的方法。 </p><p>其他的經濟學派還有<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E6%B4%BE%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="新古典派经济学">新古典派經濟學</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%87%B1%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="新凱恩斯經濟學">新凱恩斯經濟學</a>等等。新古典派經濟學是從1970年代開始形成,強調以穩固的個體經濟學基礎發展總體經濟學。新凱恩斯經濟學某些程度來說是創造來回應新古典派經濟學,處理需要被央行或是政府所控制的市場無效率現象。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="心理學"><span id=".E5.BF.83.E7.90.86.E5.AD.B8"></span>心理學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=27" title="编辑章节:心理學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="心理學史">心理學史</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="社會學"><span id=".E7.A4.BE.E6.9C.83.E5.AD.B8"></span>社會學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=28" title="编辑章节:社會學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="社會學史">社會學史</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="人類學"><span id=".E4.BA.BA.E9.A1.9E.E5.AD.B8"></span>人類學</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=29" title="编辑章节:人類學"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目:<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="人類學史">人類學史</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="新兴學科"><span id=".E6.96.B0.E5.85.B4.E5.AD.B8.E7.A7.91"></span>新兴學科</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=30" title="编辑章节:新兴學科"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>20世纪,一些跨学科科学领域逐渐形成,例如以下三个领域最为典型: </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="通信科学">通信科学</a>结合<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="生物通信(页面不存在)">生物通信</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E8%AE%BA" title="信息论">信息论</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%82%E5%9C%BA%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="市场学">市场学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="公共关系学">公共关系学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="电子通信">电子通信</a>以及其他通信学科。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="计算机科学">计算机科学</a>建立在<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="理论语言学">理论语言学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E6%95%A3%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6" title="离散数学">离散数学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="电子工程">电子工程</a>基础上,研究计算的本质和极限。它包括<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="计算理论">计算理论</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E5%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="计算复杂度">计算复杂度</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%BA%93" title="数据库">数据库</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C" title="计算机网络">计算机网络</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD" title="人工智能">人工智能</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%A1%AC%E4%BB%B6%E8%AE%BE%E8%AE%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="计算机硬件设计(页面不存在)">计算机硬件设计</a>等子学科。相对于<a href="/wiki/%E8%BD%AF%E4%BB%B6%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="软件工程">软件工程</a>,计算机科学更强调其数学理论基础,后者则强调程序和软件设计的实践。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%90%E6%96%99%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="材料科學">材料科學</a>植根于<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%91%E5%B1%9E%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="金属学(页面不存在)">金属学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%BF%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="矿物学">矿物学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%B6%E4%BD%93%E5%AD%A6" title="晶体学">晶体学</a>,同时结合了化学、物理和一些工程学科。材料科学研究金属、陶瓷、塑料、半导体和合金等材料。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參見"><span id=".E5.8F.83.E8.A6.8B"></span>參見</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=31" title="编辑章节:參見"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82553231">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tr>td,.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important;padding:0!important}}.mw-parser-output table.multicol{border:0;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:transparent;color:inherit;padding:0}.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tr>td,.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tbody>tr>td{vertical-align:top!important}</style> <div>   <table class="multicol" role="presentation" style="width:100%;"><tbody><tr> <td style="width: 33.33%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="歷史">歷史</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%B2" title="技术史">技術史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="数学史">數學史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="哲學史">哲學史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="史學">史學</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="历史哲学">歷史哲學</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td> <td style="width: 33.33%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="科學">科學</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="自然科學">自然科學</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A1%8C%E5%8B%95%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="行動科學(页面不存在)">行動科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="社會科學">社會科學</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="科學哲學">科學哲學</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="科學研究">科學研究</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td> <td style="width: 33.33%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8" title="科學年表">科學年表</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%88%90%E5%B0%B1" title="二十世紀的科學成就">二十世紀的科學成就</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%BC%94%E8%AE%8A%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="二十世紀的科學演變年表">二十世紀的科學演變年表</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學家列表(页面不存在)">科學家列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%BE%E8%B2%9D%E7%88%BE%E7%8D%8E%E5%BE%97%E4%B8%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="諾貝爾獎得主列表">諾貝爾獎得主列表</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参考文献"><span id=".E5.8F.82.E8.80.83.E6.96.87.E7.8C.AE"></span>参考文献</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=32" title="编辑章节:参考文献"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="引用"><span id=".E5.BC.95.E7.94.A8"></span>引用</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=33" title="编辑章节:引用"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Woods-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woods_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Woods" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Woods">Thomas Woods</a>, <i>How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization</i>, (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780895260383" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-89526-038-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. C. Dampier Wetham, Science, in <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 11th ed. (New York: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc, 1911); M. Clagett, <i>Greek Science in Antiquity</i> (New York: Collier Books, 1955); D. Pingree, Hellenophilia versus the History of Science, <i>Isis</i> <b>83</b>, 559 (1982); <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pat_Munday&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pat Munday(页面不存在)">Pat Munday</a>, entry "History of Science," <i>New Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i> (Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMatsuokaVigourouxGoodmanSanchez_G.2002" class="citation journal">Matsuoka, Yoshihiro; Vigouroux, Yves; Goodman, Major M.; Sanchez G., Jesus; Buckler, Edward; Doebley, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/99/9/6080.long">A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. April 30, 2002, <b>99</b> (9): 6080–6084 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2012-10-20</span>]</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PNAS...99.6080M"><span title="Bibcode">Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.6080M</span></a>. <span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC122905"><span title="公共医学中心">PMC 122905</span></a> <span typeof="mw:File"><span title="可免费查阅"><img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11983901"><span title="公共医学识别码">PMID 11983901</span></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.052125199"><span title="數位物件識別號">doi:10.1073/pnas.052125199</span></a>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120106071210/http://www.pnas.org/content/99/9/6080.long">存档</a>于2012-01-06).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=A+single+domestication+for+maize+shown+by+multilocus+microsatellite+genotyping&rft.au=Buckler%2C+Edward&rft.au=Doebley%2C+John&rft.au=Goodman%2C+Major+M.&rft.au=Sanchez+G.%2C+Jesus&rft.au=Vigouroux%2C+Yves&rft.aufirst=Yoshihiro&rft.aulast=Matsuoka&rft.date=2002-04-30&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=9&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.pages=6080-6084&rft.volume=99&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC122905&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcontent%2F99%2F9%2F6080.long&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PNAS...99.6080M&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.052125199&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11983901&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=1">Sean B. Carroll (May 24, 2010),"Tracking the Ancestry of Corn Back 9,000 Years" <i>New York Times</i></a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20170830121104/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=1">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francesca Bray (1984), <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_Civilisation_in_China&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and Civilisation in China(页面不存在)">Science and Civilisation in China</a></i> <b>VI.2</b> <i><b>Agriculture</b></i> pp 299, 453 writes that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Teosinte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teosinte(页面不存在)">teosinte</a>, 'the father of corn' helps the success and vitality of corn when planted between the rows of its 'children', <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maize(页面不存在)">maize</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHoskin2001" class="citation book">Hoskin, Michael. Tombs, Temples and their Orientations: a New Perspective on Mediterranean Prehistory. Bognor Regis, UK: Ocarina Books. 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-9540867-1-6" title="Special:网络书源/0-9540867-1-6"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 0-9540867-1-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.aulast=Hoskin&rft.btitle=Tombs%2C+Temples+and+their+Orientations%3A+a+New+Perspective+on+Mediterranean+Prehistory&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-9540867-1-6&rft.place=Bognor+Regis%2C+UK&rft.pub=Ocarina+Books&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Homer's <i>Odyssey</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D219">4.227–232</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20201112030910/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D219">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>) '[The Egyptians] are of the race of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paean_(god)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paean (god)(页面不存在)">Paeeon</a> [(physician to the gods)]'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a>(1974, 1976, 1980, 1983)and his co-authors, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_Civilisation_in_China&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and Civilisation in China(页面不存在)">Science and Civilisation in China</a></i>, <b>V</b>, Cambridge University Press, specifically: <ul><li>Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen (1974), <b>V.2 Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Magisteries of Gold and Immortality</b></li> <li>Joseph Needham, Ho Ping-Yu [Ho Peng-Yoke], and Lu Gwei-djen (1976), <b>V.3 Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Historical Survey, from Cinnabar Elixirs to Synthetic Insulin</b></li> <li>Joseph Needham, Lu Gwei-djen, and Nathan Sivin (1980), <b>V.4 Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus and Theory</b></li> <li>Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen (1983), <b>V.5 Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy</b></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.angelfire.com/nt/Gilgamesh/achieve.html">The achievements of ancient Mesopotamia</a>. www.angelfire.com. <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2021-01-27</span>]</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201203020605/https://www.angelfire.com/nt/Gilgamesh/achieve.html">存档</a>于2020-12-03).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=The+achievements+of+ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.angelfire.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.angelfire.com%2Fnt%2FGilgamesh%2Fachieve.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Hoffman_(science_writer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Hoffman (science writer)(页面不存在)">Paul Hoffman</a>, <i>The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdös and the search for mathematical truth</i>, (New York: Hyperion), 1998, p.187. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780786863624" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7868-6362-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-odyssey-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-odyssey_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=rcjeZ-yxr5MC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false">The Odyssey</a>. Translated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Shewring&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Shewring(页面不存在)">Walter Shewring</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. May 1998: 40. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-19-283375-8" title="Special:网络书源/0-19-283375-8"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 0-19-283375-8</a>. <q>In Egypt, more than in other lands, the bounteous earth yields a wealth of drugs, healthful and baneful side by side; and every man there is a physician; the rest of the world has no such skill, for these are all of the family of Paeon.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.btitle=The+Odyssey&rft.date=1998-05&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-19-283375-8&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DrcjeZ-yxr5MC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Authors list列表中的<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|first1=</code>缺少<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|last1=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#first_missing_last" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080407062556/http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf">Microsoft Word - Proceedings-2001.doc</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. July 2011. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf">原始内容</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>存档于2008-04-07).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.btitle=Microsoft+Word+-+Proceedings-2001.doc&rft.date=2011-07&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hom.ucalgary.ca%2FDayspapers2001.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9032043&query=Edwin%20Smith%20papyrus&ct=">存档副本</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2012-10-20</span>]</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200317102342/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9032043&query=Edwin%20Smith%20papyrus&ct=">存档</a>于2020-03-17).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.btitle=%E5%AD%98%E6%A1%A3%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle%3FtocId%3D9032043%26query%3DEdwin%2520Smith%2520papyrus%26ct%3D&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd, G. E. R. "The development of empirical research", in his <i>Magic, Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSambursky1974">Sambursky 1974</a>,第3,37頁<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFSambursky1974 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>)</span> called the pre-Socratics the transition from <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mythology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mythology(页面不存在)">mythos</a></i> to <i><a href="/wiki/Logos" class="mw-redirect" title="Logos">logos</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=F._M._Cornford&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="F. M. Cornford(页面不存在)">F. M. Cornford</a>, <i>Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought</i>, (Gloucester, Mass., Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arieti, James A. <i>Philosophy in the ancient world: an introduction</i>, p. 45 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=L0w6kvdKJ8QC&pg=PA44&dq=thales+earthquakes&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8nb_TqSrFuGmiQKq0siMCA&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=thales%20earthquakes&f=false">[1]</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20141208064014/http://books.google.com/books?id=L0w6kvdKJ8QC&pg=PA44&dq=thales+earthquakes&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8nb_TqSrFuGmiQKq0siMCA&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=thales%20earthquakes&f=false">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>). Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 386 pages. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780742533295" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7425-3329-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dicks-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dicks_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Dicks, D.R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick">Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle</a>. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. 1970: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/72">72</a>–198. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-8014-0561-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-8014-0561-7"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-0-8014-0561-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.aufirst=D.R.&rft.aulast=Dicks&rft.btitle=Early+Greek+Astronomy+to+Aristotle&rft.date=1970&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7&rft.pages=72-198&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlygreekastron0000dick&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Lacy O'Leary(1949), <i>How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs</i>, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780710019035" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-7100-1903-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch3.html">存档副本</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2012-10-20</span>]</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180510223411/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch3.html">存档</a>于2018-05-10).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.btitle=%E5%AD%98%E6%A1%A3%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk%2Fhistory%2FProjects%2FPearce%2FChapters%2FCh3.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bisht, R. S. Excavations at Banawali: 1974-77. Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.) (编). Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. 1982: 113–124.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=Excavations+at+Banawali%3A+1974-77&rft.aufirst=R.+S.&rft.aulast=Bisht&rft.btitle=Harappan+Civilization%3A+A+Contemporary+Perspective&rft.date=1982&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pages=113-124&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Oxford+and+IBH+Publishing+Co.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clifford_A._Pickover&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clifford A. Pickover(页面不存在)">Pickover, Clifford</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PA105">Archimedes to Hawking: laws of science and the great minds behind them</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxford_University_Press_US&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oxford University Press US(页面不存在)">Oxford University Press US</a>. 2008: 105. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-533611-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-19-533611-5"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-0-19-533611-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rft.aulast=Pickover&rft.btitle=Archimedes+to+Hawking%3A+laws+of+science+and+the+great+minds+behind+them&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533611-5&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DSQXcpvjcJBUC%26pg%3DPA105&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mainak Kumar Bose, <i>Late Classical India</i>, A. Mukherjee & Co., 1988, p. 277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ifrah-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ifrah_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ifrah, Georges. 1999. <i>The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer</i>, Wiley. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780471375685" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-471-37568-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oconnor-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oconnor_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html">'Indian Numerals'</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20070929131009/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>), <i>MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</i>, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George G. Joseph(1991). <i>The crest of the peacock</i>. <a href="/wiki/London" class="mw-redirect" title="London">London</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarma-Ast-Ind-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma-Ast-Ind_27-0"><sup><b>27.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma-Ast-Ind_27-1"><sup><b>27.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarma (2008), <i>Astronomy in India</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joseph-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Joseph_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George G. Joseph (2000). <i>The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics</i>, p. 408. <a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%9E%97%E6%96%AF%E9%A0%93%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE" title="普林斯頓大學出版社">Princeton University Press</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Coppa, A.; Bondioli, L.; Cucina, A.; Frayer, D. W.; Jarrige, C.; Jarrige, J. -F.; Quivron, G.; Rossi, M.; Vidale, M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/articles/440755a">Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry</a>. Nature. 2006-04, <b>440</b> (7085): 755–756 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2021-01-27</span>]</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836"><span title="国际标准连续出版物号">ISSN 0028-0836</span></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F440755a"><span title="數位物件識別號">doi:10.1038/440755a</span></a>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227162230/https://www.nature.com/articles/440755a">存档</a>于2021-02-27) <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=Early+Neolithic+tradition+of+dentistry&rft.au=Bondioli%2C+L.&rft.au=Cucina%2C+A.&rft.au=Frayer%2C+D.+W.&rft.au=Jarrige%2C+C.&rft.au=Jarrige%2C+J.+-F.&rft.au=Quivron%2C+G.&rft.au=Rossi%2C+M.&rft.au=Vidale%2C+M.&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.aulast=Coppa&rft.date=2006-04&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft.issue=7085&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=755-756&rft.volume=440&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F440755a&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F440755a&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Pullaiah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=M0ucOe89GZMC&pg=PA83">Biodiversity in India, Volume 4</a>. Daya Books. 2006: 83. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-81-89233-20-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-81-89233-20-4"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-81-89233-20-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.au=Pullaiah&rft.btitle=Biodiversity+in+India%2C+Volume+4&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-81-89233-20-4&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Daya+Books&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DM0ucOe89GZMC%26pg%3DPA83&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. S. Smith, A History of Metallography, University Press, Chicago(1960); Juleff 1996; Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, Joseph (1986). <i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth</i>. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Page 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plutarch-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Plutarch_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <i>Life of Caesar</i> 49.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi_(medieval_writer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (medieval writer)(页面不存在)">Abd-el-latif</a>(1203): "the library which <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amr_ibn_al-A%27as&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amr ibn al-A'as(页面不存在)">'Amr ibn al-'As</a> burnt with the permission of '<a href="/wiki/Umar" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar">Umar</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Europe: A History</i>, p 139. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780198201717" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons", <i>Isis,</i> 70 (1979): 250-268; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, <i>The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages,</i> Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000, pp. 163-181. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780226749518" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-226-74951-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Faith Wallis, <i>Bede: The Reckoning of Time,</i> Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004, pp. xviii-xxxiv. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780853236931" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-85323-693-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Briffault-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Briffault_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Briffault&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Briffault(页面不存在)">Robert Briffault</a>(1928). <i>The Making of Humanity</i>, p. 190-202. G. Allen & Unwin Ltd.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sameen Ahmed Khan, Arab Origins of the Discovery of the Refraction of Light; Roshdi Hifni Rashed (Picture) Awarded the 2007 King Faisal International Prize, Optics & Photonics News (OPN, Logo), Vol. 18, No. 10, pp. 22-23 (October 2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradley Steffens (2006), <i>Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist</i>, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781599350240" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-59935-024-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Introduction to Algorithms, Chapter 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">S. Pines. <i>The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni</i>. Isis. 1964, <b>55</b> (3): 343–349 <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=The+Semantic+Distinction+between+the+Terms+Astronomy+and+Astrology+according+to+al-Biruni&rft.au=S.+Pines&rft.date=1964&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.pages=343-349&rft.volume=55&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Toby Huff. <span></span><i>The Rise of Early Modern Science</i><span></span>. Cambridge University Press. 2003年: 第326頁. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-521-52994-8" title="Special:网络书源/0-521-52994-8"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 0-521-52994-8</a> <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.au=Toby+Huff&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Early+Modern+Science&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-521-52994-8&rft.pages=%E7%AC%AC326%E9%A0%81&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Edward Rosen. <i>The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres</i>. Journal of the History of Ideas. 1985, <b>46</b> (1): 13–31 <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=The+Dissolution+of+the+Solid+Celestial+Spheres&rft.au=Edward+Rosen&rft.date=1985&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.pages=13-31&rft.volume=46&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Roshdi Rashed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_arabic-sciences-and-philosophy_2007-03_17_1/page/7"><i>The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham</i></a>. Arabic Sciences and Philosophy. 2007, <b>17</b>: 7–55 <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=The+Celestial+Kinematics+of+Ibn+al-Haytham&rft.au=Roshdi+Rashed&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arabic+Sciences+and+Philosophy&rft.pages=7-55&rft.volume=17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_arabic-sciences-and-philosophy_2007-03_17_1%2Fpage%2F7&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tusi-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tusi_46-0"><sup><b>46.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tusi_46-1"><sup><b>46.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">F. Jamil Ragep. <i>Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context</i>. Science in Context. 2001, <b>14</b> (1-2): 145–163 <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=Tusi+and+Copernicus%3A+The+Earth%27s+Motion+in+Context&rft.au=F.+Jamil+Ragep&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1-2&rft.jtitle=Science+in+Context&rft.pages=145-163&rft.volume=14&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miracle-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Miracle_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="zh" dir="ltr">引用错误:没有为名为<code>Miracle</code>的参考文献提供内容</span></li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Seyyed Hossein Nasr. <span></span><i>An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines</i><span></span>. Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press. 1964年: 第135–136頁 <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.au=Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Islamic+Cosmological+Doctrines&rft.date=1964&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=%E7%AC%AC135-136%E9%A0%81&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+the+Harvard+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">George Saliba. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html">Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?</a>. Columbia University. 1999年 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [10-11-2009]</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080115070924/http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html">存档</a>于2008-01-15) <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.au=George+Saliba&rft.btitle=Whose+Science+is+Arabic+Science+in+Renaissance+Europe%3F&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2F~gas1%2Fproject%2Fvisions%2Fcase1%2Fsci.1.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span style="display:none;font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">请检查<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|access-date=</code>中的日期值 (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#bad_date" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1967" class="citation journal">Lindberg, David C. Alhazen's Theory of Vision and Its Reception in the West. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isis_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isis (journal)(页面不存在)">Isis</a>. 1967, <b>58</b> (3): 321–341. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4867472"><span title="公共医学识别码">PMID 4867472</span></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F350266"><span title="數位物件識別號">doi:10.1086/350266</span></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=Alhazen%27s+Theory+of+Vision+and+Its+Reception+in+the+West&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.date=1967&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.pages=321-341&rft.volume=58&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F350266&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4867472&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFaruqi2006" class="citation journal">Faruqi, Yasmeen M. Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise. International Education Journal. 2006, <b>7</b> (4): 391–396.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=Contributions+of+Islamic+scholars+to+the+scientific+enterprise&rft.aufirst=Yasmeen+M.&rft.aulast=Faruqi&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=International+Education+Journal&rft.pages=391-396&rft.volume=7&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Akbar S. Ahmed. <span></span><i>Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist</i><span></span>. 1984年: 第9–10頁 <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.au=Akbar+S.+Ahmed&rft.btitle=Al-Beruni%3A+The+First+Anthropologist&rft.date=1984&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=%E7%AC%AC9-10%E9%A0%81&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Akbar Ahmed. <i>Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today</i>. Middle East Journal. 2002, <b>56</b> (1) <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=Ibn+Khaldun%E2%80%99s+Understanding+of+Civilizations+and+the+Dilemmas+of+Islam+and+the+West+Today&rft.au=Akbar+Ahmed&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Journal&rft.volume=56&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">H. Mowlana. <i>Information in the Arab World</i>. Cooperation South Journal. 2001, <b>1</b> <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=Information+in+the+Arab+World&rft.au=H.+Mowlana&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cooperation+South+Journal&rft.volume=1&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">I. M. Oweiss. <span></span><i>Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses</i><span></span>. New York University Press. 1988年: 第112–128頁. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-88706-698-4" title="Special:网络书源/0-88706-698-4"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 0-88706-698-4</a> <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.au=I.+M.+Oweiss&rft.btitle=Arab+Civilization%3A+Challenges+and+Responses&rft.date=1988&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-88706-698-4&rft.pages=%E7%AC%AC112-128%E9%A0%81&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Mohamad Abdalla. <i>Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century</i>. Islam & Science. 2007, <b>5</b> (1): 61–70 <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=Ibn+Khaldun+on+the+Fate+of+Islamic+Science+after+the+11th+Century&rft.au=Mohamad+Abdalla&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Islam+%26+Science&rft.pages=61-70&rft.volume=5&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Salahuddin Ahmed. <span></span><i>A Dictionary of Muslim Names</i><span></span>. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. 1999年. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/1-85065-356-9" title="Special:网络书源/1-85065-356-9"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 1-85065-356-9</a> <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.au=Salahuddin+Ahmed&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Muslim+Names&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=1-85065-356-9&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.+Publishers&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Akhtar-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Akhtar_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Dr. S. W. Akhtar. <i>The Islamic Concept of Knowledge</i>. Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture. 1997, <b>12</b> (3) <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">(英语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.atitle=The+Islamic+Concept+of+Knowledge&rft.au=Dr.+S.+W.+Akhtar&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Al-Tawhid%3A+A+Quarterly+Journal+of+Islamic+Thought+%26+Culture&rft.volume=12&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. "Letters to <i>Nature</i>: Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid." <i><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6_(%E6%9C%9F%E5%88%8A)" title="自然 (期刊)">Nature</a></i> <b>171</b>, 737–738 (1953).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="来源"><span id=".E6.9D.A5.E6.BA.90"></span>来源</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=34" title="编辑章节:来源"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r80540462">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_S._Kuhn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas S. Kuhn(页面不存在)">Thomas S. Kuhn</a>(1996). <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions(页面不存在)">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780226458076" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-226-45807-6</a></li> <li>Howard Margolis (2002). <i>It Started with Copernicus</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780071385077" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-07-138507-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a>. <i>Science and Civilisation in China</i>. Multiple volumes (1954–2004).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>(1945). <i>A History of Western Philosophy: And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_and_Schuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon and Schuster">Simon and Schuster</a>.</li> <li>John L. Heilbron, ed., <i>The Oxford companion to the history of modern science</i> (New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2003).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deepak_Kumar_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deepak Kumar (historian)(页面不存在)">Deepak Kumar</a>(2006). <i>Science and the Raj: A Study of British India</i>, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780195680034" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-19-568003-4</a></li> <li>George Rousseau and Roy Porter, eds., <i>The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Science</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780521225991" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-521-22599-1</a></li> <li>Caroline L. Herzenberg. 1986. <i>Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present</i> Locust Hill Press <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780933951013" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-933951-01-3</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="外部連結"><span id=".E5.A4.96.E9.83.A8.E9.80.A3.E7.B5.90"></span>外部連結</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&section=35" title="编辑章节:外部連結"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/catalogs/bysubject-sci-history.html">A History of Science, Vols 1–4</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/19991006233503/http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/catalogs/bysubject-sci-history.html">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>), online text</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-002Toward-the-Scientific-RevolutionFall2003/CourseHome/index.htm">MIT STS.002 – Toward the Scientific Revolution</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110709205714/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-002Toward-the-Scientific-RevolutionFall2003/CourseHome/index.htm">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>). From MIT OpenCourseWare, class materials for the history of science up to and including <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-042JEinstein--Oppenheimer--Feynman--Physics-in-the-20th-CenturyFall2002/CourseHome/index.htm">MIT STS.042 – Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th Century</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110629114923/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-042JEinstein--Oppenheimer--Feynman--Physics-in-the-20th-CenturyFall2002/CourseHome/index.htm">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>). Class materials for the history of physics in the 20th century.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/">Contributions of 20th century Women to Physics ("CWP")</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110709204323/http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/">The official site of the Nobel Foundation</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20060405023917/http://nobelprize.org/">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>). Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060701215234/http://www.imss.fi.it/">The Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy</a></li></ul> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84261037">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em;width:auto;padding-left:0.2em;position:absolute;left:1em}.mw-parser-output .navbox .mw-collapsible-toggle{margin-left:0.5em;position:absolute;right:1em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="科学哲学" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#F2DE79;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="Template:科學哲學"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="Template talk:科學哲學"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:科學哲學"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="科学哲学" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="科学哲学">科学哲学</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5ECB1; text-align:center;">概念</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90" title="哲學分析">分析</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90-%E7%B6%9C%E5%90%88%E5%8D%80%E5%88%A5" title="分析-綜合區別">分析-綜合區別</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%88%E9%A9%97%E8%88%87%E5%BE%8C%E9%A9%97" title="先驗與後驗">先驗</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB" title="因果关系">因果</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E9%80%9A%E7%BA%A6%E6%80%A7_(%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)" title="可通约性 (科学哲学)">可通约性</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BB%BA%E6%A7%8B" title="建構">建構</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%92%E7%95%8C%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98" title="划界问题">划界问题</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E8%AF%81%E6%8D%AE" title="经验证据">经验证据</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="解釋力" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Explanatory power"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8A%E5%8A%9B" title="解释力">解釋力</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanatory_power" class="extiw" title="en:Explanatory power"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Explanatory power</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8B%E5%AF%A6" title="事實">事實</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%AF%81%E4%BC%AA%E6%80%A7" title="可证伪性">可证伪性</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%88%91%E5%80%91%E7%8F%BE%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%8D%E7%9F%A5%E9%81%93%EF%BC%8C%E5%B0%87%E4%BE%86%E4%B9%9F%E4%B8%8D%E7%9F%A5%E9%81%93" title="我們現在不知道,將來也不知道">我們現在不知道,將來也不知道</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%92%E7%BA%B3%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="归纳推理">归纳推理</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="智巧" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Ingenuity"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%BA%E5%B7%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="智巧(页面不存在)">智巧</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenuity" class="extiw" title="en:Ingenuity"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Ingenuity</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="探究" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Inquiry"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8E%A2%E7%A9%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="探究(页面不存在)">探究</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiry" class="extiw" title="en:Inquiry"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Inquiry</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科學探究模型" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Models of scientific inquiry"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%8E%A2%E7%A9%B6%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學探究模型(页面不存在)">科學探究模型</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_scientific_inquiry" class="extiw" title="en:Models of scientific inquiry"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Models of scientific inquiry</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="本性 (哲學)" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Nature (philosophy)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%AC%E6%80%A7_(%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="本性 (哲學)(页面不存在)">本性</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" class="extiw" title="en:Nature (philosophy)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Nature (philosophy)</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A2%E8%A7%80%E6%80%A7" title="客觀性">客觀性</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%82%E5%AF%9F" title="观察">观察</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E7%8E%B0_(%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA)" title="发现 (认识论)">发现</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%83%E5%BC%8F" title="范式">范式</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="歸納問題" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Problem of induction"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%92%E7%BA%B3%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98" title="归纳问题">歸納問題</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_induction" class="extiw" title="en:Problem of induction"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Problem of induction</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科學解釋" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Models of scientific inquiry"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學解釋(页面不存在)">科學解釋</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_scientific_inquiry" class="extiw" title="en:Models of scientific inquiry"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Models of scientific inquiry</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E8%A7%84%E5%BE%8B" title="科学规律">定律</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科学方法">科学方法</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="科学革命">科学革命</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="科学理论">科学理论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E6%B8%AC%E8%A9%A6%E6%80%A7" title="可測試性">可測試性</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%89%E6%8B%A9%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="选择理论">选择理论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%85%85%E5%88%86%E6%B1%BA%E5%AE%9A%E8%AB%96" title="不充分決定論">不充分決定論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%80%E8%AE%BA" title="科学统一论">科学统一论</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5ECB1; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%85%83%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="Category:科學元理論">科學元理論</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="驗證整體論" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Confirmation holism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%A9%97%E8%AD%89%E6%95%B4%E9%AB%94%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="驗證整體論(页面不存在)">驗證整體論</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_holism" class="extiw" title="en:Confirmation holism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Confirmation holism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86%E8%9E%8D%E8%B2%AB%E8%AB%96" title="真理融貫論">真理融貫論</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="語境主義" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Contextualism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E5%A2%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="语境主义">語境主義</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextualism" class="extiw" title="en:Contextualism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Contextualism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="傳統主義" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Conventionalism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="传统主义">傳統主義</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventionalism" class="extiw" title="en:Conventionalism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Conventionalism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="演繹的法則的" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Deductive-nomological model"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%BC%94%E7%B9%B9%E7%9A%84%E6%B3%95%E5%89%87%E7%9A%84&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="演繹的法則的(页面不存在)">演繹的法則的</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" class="extiw" title="en:Deductive-nomological model"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Deductive-nomological model</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="实证主义">实证主义</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%98%E5%8E%9F%E8%AE%BA" title="还原论">还原论</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%BA%E5%AE%9A%E8%AB%96" title="決定論">決定論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%AC%AC%E8%AB%96" title="可謬論">可謬論</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="基礎主義" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Foundationalism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%A1%80%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="基础主义">基礎主義</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism" class="extiw" title="en:Foundationalism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Foundationalism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="假設-演繹模型" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Hypothetico-deductive model"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%81%87%E8%A8%AD%EF%BC%8D%E6%BC%94%E7%B9%B9%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="假設-演繹模型(页面不存在)">假設-演繹模型</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" class="extiw" title="en:Hypothetico-deductive model"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Hypothetico-deductive model</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="無限主義" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Infinitism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%84%A1%E9%99%90%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="無限主義(页面不存在)">無限主義</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitism" class="extiw" title="en:Infinitism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Infinitism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="工具主義">工具主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E7%94%A8%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="实用主义">实用主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="理性主义">理性主义</a> / <a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="经验主义">经验主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科學理論的接受觀" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Received view of theories"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E7%9A%84%E6%8E%A5%E5%8F%97%E8%A7%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學理論的接受觀(页面不存在)">科學理論的接受觀</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" class="extiw" title="en:Received view of theories"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Received view of theories</span></a></span>)</span></span> / <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科學理論的語義觀" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Semantic view of theories"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E7%9A%84%E8%AA%9E%E7%BE%A9%E8%A7%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學理論的語義觀(页面不存在)">語義觀</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" class="extiw" title="en:Semantic view of theories"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Semantic view of theories</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%AF%A6%E5%9C%A8%E8%AB%96" title="科學實在論">科學實在論</a> / <span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="反實在論" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Anti-realism"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8D%E5%AF%A6%E5%9C%A8%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="反實在論(页面不存在)">反實在論</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism" class="extiw" title="en:Anti-realism"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Anti-realism</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="科学主义">科学主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="自然主义">自然主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%80%80%E7%96%91%E8%AE%BA" title="怀疑论">怀疑论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%87%E8%AE%8A%E8%AB%96" title="均變論">均變論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%8A%9B%E8%AB%96" title="活力論">活力論</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5ECB1; text-align:center;">科學哲學<br />相關條目</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA" title="认识论">认识论</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科學哲學史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History and philosophy of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學哲學史(页面不存在)">科學哲學史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:History and philosophy of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History and philosophy of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">科学史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="物理哲学">物理哲学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="熱力學和統計物理哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8%E5%92%8C%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="熱力學和統計物理哲學(页面不存在)">熱力學和統計物理哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="化学哲学">化学哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學哲學">生物學哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%8F%B2" title="演化思想史">演化思想史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="環境哲學">環境哲學</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="時間和空間哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of space and time"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%82%E9%96%93%E5%92%8C%E7%A9%BA%E9%96%93%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="時間和空間哲學(页面不存在)">時間和空間哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of space and time"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of space and time</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="神經科學哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Neurophilosophy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="神經科學哲學(页面不存在)">神經科學哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurophilosophy" class="extiw" title="en:Neurophilosophy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Neurophilosophy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%81%B5%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="心灵哲学">心灵哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="心理學哲學">心理學哲學</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="感知哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of perception"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%84%9F%E7%9F%A5%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="感知哲學(页面不存在)">感知哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of perception"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of perception</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="人工智能哲學">人工智能哲學</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="計算機科學哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of computer science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A8%88%E7%AE%97%E6%A9%9F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="計算機科學哲學(页面不存在)">計算機科學哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of computer science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of computer science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="資訊哲學">資訊哲學</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技術哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of technology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="技术哲学">技術哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of technology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of technology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社會科學哲學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of social science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="社會科學哲學(页面不存在)">社會科學哲學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of social science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of social science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="伪科学">伪科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E4%B8%8E%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="宗教与科学">宗教与科学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科學修辭學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Rhetoric of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E4%BF%AE%E8%BE%AD%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學修辭學(页面不存在)">科學修辭學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Rhetoric of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Rhetoric of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="科学知识社会学">科学知识社会学</a></li> <li><b><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科學哲學條目列表" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Index of philosophy of science articles"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E6%A2%9D%E7%9B%AE%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學哲學條目列表(页面不存在)">更多...</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" class="extiw" title="en:Index of philosophy of science articles"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Index of philosophy of science articles</span></a></span>)</span></span></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5ECB1; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" title="Category:科学哲学家">科学哲学家</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FAFACA; text-align:center;">古典时期</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德">亚里士多德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E5%A3%81%E9%B8%A0%E9%B2%81" title="伊壁鸠鲁">伊壁鸠鲁</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E8%91%9B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="斯多葛主義">斯多葛主義</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FAFACA; text-align:center;">中世纪</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%81%96%E7%B6%AD%E5%85%8B%E6%89%98%E7%9A%84%E4%BC%91%E6%A0%BC" title="聖維克托的休格">聖維克托的休格</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%9F%B9%E6%A0%B9" title="罗吉尔·培根">罗吉尔·培根</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E9%AD%AF%E4%B8%96%E5%BE%B7" title="伊本·魯世德">伊本·魯世德</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="多明尼库斯·贡狄萨利奴斯" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Dominicus Gundissalinus"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%9A%E6%98%8E%E5%B0%BC%E5%BA%93%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B4%A1%E7%8B%84%E8%90%A8%E5%88%A9%E5%A5%B4%E6%96%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="多明尼库斯·贡狄萨利奴斯(页面不存在)">多明尼库斯·贡狄萨利奴斯</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" class="extiw" title="en:Dominicus Gundissalinus"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Dominicus Gundissalinus</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="羅伯特·基爾沃比" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Robert Kilwardby"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%85%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%9F%BA%E7%88%BE%E6%B2%83%E6%AF%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="羅伯特·基爾沃比(页面不存在)">羅伯特·基爾沃比</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Kilwardby" class="extiw" title="en:Robert Kilwardby"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Robert Kilwardby</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%8D%A1%E5%A7%86%E7%9A%84%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89" title="奥卡姆的威廉">奥卡姆的威廉</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FAFACA; text-align:center;">近代</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%9C%97%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%9F%B9%E6%A0%B9" title="弗朗西斯·培根">弗朗西斯·培根</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E6%A1%91%E7%8B%84" title="皮埃尔·伽桑狄">皮埃尔·伽桑狄</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E5%86%85%C2%B7%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94" title="勒内·笛卡尔">勒内·笛卡尔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E8%8E%B1" title="伽利略·伽利莱">伽利略·伽利莱</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%9C%8D%E5%B8%83%E6%96%AF" title="托马斯·霍布斯">托马斯·霍布斯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%90%A8%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A1%BF" title="艾萨克·牛顿">艾萨克·牛顿</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FAFACA; text-align:center;">18~19世纪</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德">伊曼努尔·康德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E8%B0%A2%E6%9E%97" title="弗里德里希·谢林">弗里德里希·谢林</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E6%83%A0%E5%A8%81%E7%88%BE" title="威廉·惠威爾">威廉·惠威爾</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%AD%94%E5%BE%B7" title="奥古斯特·孔德">奥古斯特·孔德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%9B%BE%E5%B0%94%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%AF%86%E5%B0%94" title="约翰·斯图尔特·密尔">约翰·斯图尔特·密尔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%AE%BE%E5%A1%9E" title="赫伯特·斯宾塞">赫伯特·斯宾塞</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E5%86%AF%E7%89%B9" title="威廉·冯特">威廉·冯特</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%A1%91%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%9A%AE%E5%B0%94%E5%A3%AB" title="查尔斯·桑德斯·皮尔士">查尔斯·桑德斯·皮尔士</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E6%96%87%E5%BE%B7%E5%B0%94%E7%8F%AD" title="威廉·文德尔班">威廉·文德尔班</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A8%E5%88%A9%C2%B7%E9%BE%90%E5%8A%A0%E8%90%8A" title="亨利·龐加萊">亨利·龐加萊</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%BF%AA%E6%98%82" title="皮埃尔·迪昂">皮埃尔·迪昂</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%B2%81%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E6%96%BD%E6%B3%B0%E7%BA%B3" title="鲁道夫·施泰纳">鲁道夫·施泰纳</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E7%9A%AE%E5%B0%94%E9%80%8A" title="卡尔·皮尔逊">卡尔·皮尔逊</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FAFACA; text-align:center;">科学哲学创立</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%B3%A2%E6%99%AE%E5%B0%94" title="卡尔·波普尔">卡尔·波普尔</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="查理·鄧巴·博爾德" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="C. D. Broad"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9F%A5%E7%90%86%C2%B7%E9%84%A7%E5%B7%B4%C2%B7%E5%8D%9A%E7%88%BE%E5%BE%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="查理·鄧巴·博爾德(页面不存在)">查理·鄧巴·博爾德</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._D._Broad" class="extiw" title="en:C. D. Broad"><span lang="en" dir="auto">C. D. Broad</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦">阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BA%93%E6%81%A9" title="托马斯·库恩">托马斯·库恩</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1%E6%89%98%E4%BB%80%C2%B7%E4%BC%8A%E5%A7%86%E9%9B%B7" title="拉卡托什·伊姆雷">拉卡托什·伊姆雷</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FAFACA; text-align:center;">其他<br />现代哲学家</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="分析哲學">分析哲學</a></b>:<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%88%BE%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%AB%BE%E6%80%9D%C2%B7%E6%87%B7%E7%89%B9%E9%BB%91%E5%BE%B7" title="阿爾弗雷德·諾思·懷特黑德">阿爾弗雷德·諾思·懷特黑德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%85%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E7%B4%A0" title="伯特兰·罗素">伯特兰·罗素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E4%BA%A8%E6%99%AE%E5%B0%94" title="卡尔·亨普尔">卡尔·亨普尔</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E5%8D%A1%E7%89%B9%E8%90%8A%E7%89%B9_(%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6)" title="南希·卡特萊特 (哲學家)">南希·卡特萊特</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%8C%83%C2%B7%E5%A5%A5%E6%9B%BC%C2%B7%E8%92%AF%E5%9B%A0" title="威拉德·范·奥曼·蒯因">威拉德·范·奥曼·蒯因</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%A5%C2%B7%E9%82%A6%E6%A0%BC" title="马里奥·邦格">马里奥·邦格</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%8A%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E5%8D%A1" title="罗伊·巴斯卡">罗伊·巴斯卡</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A7%E5%9C%96%C2%B7%E7%B4%90%E6%8B%89%E7%89%B9" title="奧圖·紐拉特">奧圖·紐拉特</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%B2%81%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%B3%E6%99%AE" title="鲁道夫·卡尔纳普">鲁道夫·卡尔纳普</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E8%B4%B9%E8%80%B6%E9%98%BF%E6%9C%AC%E5%BE%B7" title="保罗·费耶阿本德">保罗·费耶阿本德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%B9%E5%B0%BC%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E4%B8%B9%E5%B0%BC%E7%89%B9" title="丹尼爾·丹尼特">丹尼爾·丹尼特</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%B6%AD%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E8%90%8A%E5%85%8B" title="路德維克·弗萊克">路德維克·弗萊克</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%81%A9%C2%B7%E5%93%88%E9%87%91" title="伊恩·哈金">伊恩·哈金</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%B2%E5%88%A9%E6%99%AE%C2%B7%E5%9F%BA%E5%BD%BB" title="菲利普·基彻">菲利普·基彻</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#F2DE79;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Portal:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portal:科學哲學(页面不存在)">主題</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="Category:科學哲學">分類</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="科学技术研究(英语:-&#123;science_and_technology_studies&#125;-)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="Template:科学技术研究"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:科学技术研究(页面不存在)"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:科学技术研究"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="科学技术研究(英语:-&#123;science_and_technology_studies&#125;-)" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学技术研究" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="science and technology studies"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学技术研究(页面不存在)">科学技术研究</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/science_and_technology_studies" class="extiw" title="en:science and technology studies"><span lang="en" dir="auto">science and technology studies</span></a></span>)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="经济学">经济学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学经济学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Economics of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学经济学(页面不存在)">科学经济学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Economics of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Economics of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学知识经济学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Economics of scientific knowledge"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学知识经济学(页面不存在)">科学知识经济学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" class="extiw" title="en:Economics of scientific knowledge"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Economics of scientific knowledge</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="历史">历史</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学历史与哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History and philosophy of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8E%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学历史与哲学(页面不存在)">科学历史与哲学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:History and philosophy of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History and philosophy of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">科学史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%B2" title="技术史">技术史</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学技术史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of science and technology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学技术史(页面不存在)">科学技术史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" class="extiw" title="en:History of science and technology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of science and technology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学">哲学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E4%B8%96" title="人類世">人類世</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E5%AF%A6%E8%AD%89%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="反實證主義">反實證主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="经验主义">经验主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%A1%E7%B3%8A%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="模糊逻辑">模糊逻辑</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%8D%A2%E5%BE%B7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新卢德主义">新卢德主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="科学哲学">科学哲学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社会科学哲学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Philosophy of social science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="社会科学哲学(页面不存在)">社会科学哲学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophy of social science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Philosophy of social science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="技术哲学">技术哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="实证主义">实证主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8E%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="后实证主义">后实证主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E4%B8%8E%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="宗教与科学">宗教与科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="科学主义">科学主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%BB%BA%E6%9E%84%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="社会建构主义">社会建构主义</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社会认识论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Social epistemology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="社会认识论(页面不存在)">社会认识论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_epistemology" class="extiw" title="en:Social epistemology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Social epistemology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="超人类主义">超人类主义</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="社会学">社会学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E5%8A%A8%E8%80%85%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="行动者网络理论">行动者网络理论</a></li> <li>社会 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E7%9A%84%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%BB%BA%E6%9E%84" title="技术的社会建构">技术的社会建构</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E7%9A%84%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%BD%A2%E5%A1%91" title="技術的社會形塑">技術的社會形塑</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="知识社会学">知识社会学</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="科学知识社会学">科学知识社会学</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学无知社会学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Sociology of scientific ignorance"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%97%A0%E7%9F%A5%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学无知社会学(页面不存在)">科学无知社会学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" class="extiw" title="en:Sociology of scientific ignorance"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Sociology of scientific ignorance</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学史社会学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Sociology of the history of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学史社会学(页面不存在)">科学史社会学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Sociology of the history of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Sociology of the history of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社会工艺学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Sociotechnology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%B7%A5%E8%89%BA%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="社会工艺学(页面不存在)">社会工艺学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnology" class="extiw" title="en:Sociotechnology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Sociotechnology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%BA%E7%BA%B2%E9%A2%86" title="强纲领">强纲领</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E8%AE%BA" title="科学论">科学论</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="原始科學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Protoscience"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="原始科學(页面不存在)">原始科學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoscience" class="extiw" title="en:Protoscience"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Protoscience</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="反科學">反科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E7%8D%BB%E8%A8%88%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%B8" title="文獻計量學">文獻計量學</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="划界" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Boundary-work"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%92%E7%95%8C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="划界(页面不存在)">划界</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary-work" class="extiw" title="en:Boundary-work"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Boundary-work</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="归纳一致" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Consilience"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BD%92%E7%BA%B3%E4%B8%80%E8%87%B4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="归纳一致(页面不存在)">归纳一致</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience" class="extiw" title="en:Consilience"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Consilience</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学批判" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Criticism of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学批判(页面不存在)">科学批判</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Criticism of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Criticism of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%92%E7%95%8C%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98" title="划界问题">划界问题</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="双重诠释" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Double hermeneutic"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8C%E9%87%8D%E8%AF%A0%E9%87%8A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="双重诠释(页面不存在)">双重诠释</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" class="extiw" title="en:Double hermeneutic"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Double hermeneutic</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6" title="科学学">科学学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="映射争议" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Mapping controversies"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%A0%E5%B0%84%E4%BA%89%E8%AE%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="映射争议(页面不存在)">映射争议</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapping_controversies" class="extiw" title="en:Mapping controversies"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Mapping controversies</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="元科学">元科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B8%E7%AF%84%E8%BD%89%E7%A7%BB" title="典範轉移">范式转变</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E5%A4%A9%E9%B5%9D%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="黑天鵝理論">黑天鹅事件</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="伪科学">伪科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="科学心理学">科学心理学</a></li> <li>科学 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="公民科学">公民科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%82%B3%E6%92%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="科學傳播">沟通</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="科學教育">教育</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="常态科学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Normal science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%B8%E6%80%81%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="常态科学(页面不存在)">常态科学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_science" class="extiw" title="en:Normal science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Normal science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="規範科學">規範科學</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="新殖民式科學" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Neo-colonial science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%B0%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%BC%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="新殖民式科學(页面不存在)">新殖民式科學</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" class="extiw" title="en:Neo-colonial science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Neo-colonial science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="后常态科学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Post-normal science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8E%E5%B8%B8%E6%80%81%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="后常态科学(页面不存在)">后常态科学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-normal_science" class="extiw" title="en:Post-normal science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Post-normal science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学修辞" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Rhetoric of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%BF%AE%E8%BE%9E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学修辞(页面不存在)">科学修辞</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Rhetoric of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Rhetoric of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="科學戰爭">科学战争</a></li></ul></li> <li>科学的 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93" class="mw-redirect" title="科学共同体">科学共同体</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%85%B1%E8%AD%98" title="科學共識">科学共识</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学争议" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Scientific controversy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%BA%89%E8%AE%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学争议(页面不存在)">争议</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_controversy" class="extiw" title="en:Scientific controversy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Scientific controversy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学异议" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Scientific dissent"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%BC%82%E8%AE%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学异议(页面不存在)">异议</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_dissent" class="extiw" title="en:Scientific dissent"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Scientific dissent</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学企业" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Scientific enterprise"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%BC%81%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学企业(页面不存在)">企业</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" class="extiw" title="en:Scientific enterprise"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Scientific enterprise</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E8%AD%89%E6%93%9A" title="科學證據">证据</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%B4%A0%E9%A4%8A" title="科學素養">素养</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科学方法">方法</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E4%B8%8D%E7%AB%AF%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA" title="科學不端行為">不端行為</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学优先权" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Scientific priority"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%BC%98%E5%85%88%E6%9D%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学优先权(页面不存在)">优先权</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_priority" class="extiw" title="en:Scientific priority"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Scientific priority</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%87%B7%E7%96%91%E8%AB%96" title="科學懷疑論">怀疑论</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学专政" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Scientocracy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%93%E6%94%BF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学专政(页面不存在)">科学专政</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientocracy" class="extiw" title="en:Scientocracy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Scientocracy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E8%A8%88%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%B8" title="科學計量學">科学计量学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="團隊科學論" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Science of team science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%98%E9%9A%8A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="團隊科學論(页面不存在)">團隊科學論</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_team_science" class="extiw" title="en:Science of team science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Science of team science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="在地知識" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Traditional knowledge"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%A8%E5%9C%B0%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="在地知識(页面不存在)">在地知識</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" class="extiw" title="en:Traditional knowledge"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Traditional knowledge</span></a></span>)</span></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%82%B3%E7%B5%B1%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E6%99%BA%E6%85%A7" title="傳統生態智慧">傳統生態智慧</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%80%E8%AE%BA" title="科学统一论">科学统一论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%A2%86%E5%9F%9F%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7" title="科学领域中的女性">科学领域中的女性</a> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="STEM領域的女性" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Women in STEM fields"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=STEM%E9%A0%98%E5%9F%9F%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="STEM領域的女性(页面不存在)">STEM領域的女性</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" class="extiw" title="en:Women in STEM fields"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Women in STEM fields</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">技术研究</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="合作生产" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Co-production (society)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="合作生产(页面不存在)">合作生产</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="extiw" title="en:Co-production (society)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Co-production (society)</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="赛博格人类学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Cyborg anthropology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B5%9B%E5%8D%9A%E6%A0%BC%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="赛博格人类学(页面不存在)">赛博格人类学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" class="extiw" title="en:Cyborg anthropology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Cyborg anthropology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="非物质化" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Dematerialization (products)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="非物质化(页面不存在)">非物质化</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" class="extiw" title="en:Dematerialization (products)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Dematerialization (products)</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="数字人类学">数字人类学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="数字媒体的使用与心理健康" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Digital media use and mental health"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%E5%AA%92%E4%BD%93%E7%9A%84%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E4%B8%8E%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%81%A5%E5%BA%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="数字媒体的使用与心理健康(页面不存在)">数字媒体的使用与心理健康</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" class="extiw" title="en:Digital media use and mental health"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Digital media use and mental health</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="早期採用者" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Early adopter"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F%E6%8E%A1%E7%94%A8%E8%80%85&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="早期採用者(页面不存在)">早期採用者</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_adopter" class="extiw" title="en:Early adopter"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Early adopter</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="工程研究" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Engineering studies"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="工程研究(页面不存在)">工程研究</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_studies" class="extiw" title="en:Engineering studies"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Engineering studies</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E8%9E%8D%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="金融科技">金融科技</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%9B%E6%96%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="创新">创新</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%89%B5%E6%96%B0%E6%93%B4%E6%95%A3%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="創新擴散理論">扩散</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A0%B4%E5%A3%9E%E6%80%A7%E5%89%B5%E6%96%B0" title="破壞性創新">破壞性創新</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="线性创新模型" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Linear model of innovation"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E5%88%9B%E6%96%B0%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="线性创新模型(页面不存在)">线性创新模型</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" class="extiw" title="en:Linear model of innovation"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Linear model of innovation</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技術創新系統" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Technological innovation system"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E5%89%B5%E6%96%B0%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="技術創新系統(页面不存在)">技術創新系統</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" class="extiw" title="en:Technological innovation system"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Technological innovation system</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%A8%E6%88%B7%E5%88%9B%E6%96%B0" title="用户创新">用户创新</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="蛙跳模式" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Leapfrogging"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%9B%99%E8%B7%B3%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="蛙跳模式(页面不存在)">蛙跳模式</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leapfrogging" class="extiw" title="en:Leapfrogging"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Leapfrogging</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="归一化过程理论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Normalization process theory"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BD%92%E4%B8%80%E5%8C%96%E8%BF%87%E7%A8%8B%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="归一化过程理论(页面不存在)">归一化过程理论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" class="extiw" title="en:Normalization process theory"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Normalization process theory</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="反向凸角" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Reverse salient"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8D%E5%90%91%E5%87%B8%E8%A7%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="反向凸角(页面不存在)">反向凸角</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_salient" class="extiw" title="en:Reverse salient"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Reverse salient</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社会技术系统" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Sociotechnical system"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="社会技术系统(页面不存在)">社会技术系统</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" class="extiw" title="en:Sociotechnical system"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Sociotechnical system</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技术变化" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Technical change"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="技术变化(页面不存在)">技术变化</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_change" class="extiw" title="en:Technical change"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Technical change</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%93%E5%AE%B6%E7%BB%9F%E6%B2%BB" title="专家统治">专家统治</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技性科学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Technoscience"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8A%80%E6%80%A7%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="技性科学(页面不存在)">技性科学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience" class="extiw" title="en:Technoscience"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Technoscience</span></a></span>)</span></span> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="女性主义技性科学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Feminist technoscience"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E6%8A%80%E6%80%A7%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="女性主义技性科学(页面不存在)">女性主义技性科学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" class="extiw" title="en:Feminist technoscience"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Feminist technoscience</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></li> <li>技术的 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E9%9D%A9%E6%96%B0" title="技术革新">技术革新</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E8%9E%8D%E5%90%88" title="技术融合">技术融合</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%86%B3%E5%AE%9A%E8%AE%BA" title="技术决定论">技术决定论</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技术革命" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Technological revolution"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="技术革命(页面不存在)">技术革命</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revolution" class="extiw" title="en:Technological revolution"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Technological revolution</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技术转化" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Technological transitions"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E8%BD%AC%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="技术转化(页面不存在)">技术转化</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions" class="extiw" title="en:Technological transitions"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Technological transitions</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></li> <li>技术 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80%E8%88%87%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83" title="科技與社會">科技與社會</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="對技術的批評" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Criticism of technology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%8D%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E7%9A%84%E6%89%B9%E8%A9%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="對技術的批評(页面不存在)">批評</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" class="extiw" title="en:Criticism of technology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Criticism of technology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技术动力" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Technology dynamics"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8A%A8%E5%8A%9B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="技术动力(页面不存在)">动力</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_dynamics" class="extiw" title="en:Technology dynamics"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Technology dynamics</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技术理论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Theories of technology"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="技术理论(页面不存在)">理论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" class="extiw" title="en:Theories of technology"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Theories of technology</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E8%BD%AC%E7%A7%BB" title="技术转移">技术转让</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E9%80%B1%E6%9C%9F" title="技術生命週期">技術生命週期</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%82%92%E4%BD%9C%E5%91%A8%E6%9C%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="炒作周期">炒作周期</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E9%A0%98%E5%9F%9F%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7" title="工程領域中的女性">工程領域中的女性</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学政策" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Science policy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学政策(页面不存在)">科学政策</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy" class="extiw" title="en:Science policy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Science policy</span></a></span>)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%AF%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" title="学术自由">学术自由</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E4%BD%8D%E8%90%BD%E5%B7%AE" title="數位落差">数字鸿沟</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AA%E8%AD%89%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="循證政策">循證政策</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="Factor 10" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Factor 10"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Factor_10&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Factor 10(页面不存在)">Factor 10</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_10" class="extiw" title="en:Factor 10"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Factor 10</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科研基金" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Funding of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E7%A0%94%E5%9F%BA%E9%87%91&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科研基金(页面不存在)">科研基金</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Funding of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Funding of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="地平线扫描" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Horizon scanning"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%B0%E5%B9%B3%E7%BA%BF%E6%89%AB%E6%8F%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="地平线扫描(页面不存在)">地平线扫描</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon_scanning" class="extiw" title="en:Horizon scanning"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Horizon scanning</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学政策" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Science policy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学政策(页面不存在)">科学政策</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy" class="extiw" title="en:Science policy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Science policy</span></a></span>)</span></span> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学政策史" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="History of science policy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学政策史(页面不存在)">科学政策史</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy" class="extiw" title="en:History of science policy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">History of science policy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科技政策科学" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Science of science policy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科技政策科学(页面不存在)">科技政策科学</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" class="extiw" title="en:Science of science policy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Science of science policy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%96" title="科學政治化">科学政治化</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="对科学的监管" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Regulation of science"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%91%E7%AE%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="对科学的监管(页面不存在)">对科学的监管</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Regulation of science"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Regulation of science</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科學倫理" data-lang-code="de" data-lang-name="德语" data-foreign-title="Wissenschaftsethik"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科學倫理(页面不存在)">科學倫理</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">德语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftsethik" class="extiw" title="de:Wissenschaftsethik"><span lang="de" dir="auto">Wissenschaftsethik</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科学与文化权" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Right to science and culture"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%8E%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E6%9D%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学与文化权(页面不存在)">科学与文化权</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" class="extiw" title="en:Right to science and culture"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Right to science and culture</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="社会-科学问题" data-lang-code="es" data-lang-name="西班牙语" data-foreign-title="Asuntos sociocientíficos"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A-%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="社会-科学问题(页面不存在)">社会-科学问题</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">西班牙语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asuntos_sociocient%C3%ADficos" class="extiw" title="es:Asuntos sociocientíficos"><span lang="es" dir="auto">Asuntos sociocientíficos</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="技术评估" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Technology assessment"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E8%AF%84%E4%BC%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="技术评估(页面不存在)">技术评估</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_assessment" class="extiw" title="en:Technology assessment"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Technology assessment</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="科技政策" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Technology policy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科技政策(页面不存在)">科技政策</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_policy" class="extiw" title="en:Technology policy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Technology policy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="转型管理" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Transition management (governance)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BD%AC%E5%9E%8B%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="转型管理(页面不存在)">转型管理</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" class="extiw" title="en:Transition management (governance)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Transition management (governance)</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="主题"><img alt="主题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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