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id="toc-Scope_and_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scope_and_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Scope and approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scope_and_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Related terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Philosophy of information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ontology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ontology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Ontology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ontology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_or_discipline?" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_or_discipline?"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Science or discipline?</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_or_discipline?-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Careers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Careers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Careers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Careers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Careers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Careers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Information_scientist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_scientist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Information scientist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_scientist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systems_analyst" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systems_analyst"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Systems analyst</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systems_analyst-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_professional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_professional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Information professional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_professional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_beginnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_beginnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early beginnings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_beginnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_documentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_documentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>European documentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_documentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transition_to_modern_information_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_to_modern_information_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Transition to modern information science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_to_modern_information_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_dissemination_in_the_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_dissemination_in_the_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Information dissemination in the 21st century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Information_dissemination_in_the_21st_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Information dissemination in the 21st century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Information_dissemination_in_the_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Changing_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Changing definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_social_media_on_people_and_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_social_media_on_people_and_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Impact of social media on people and industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_social_media_on_people_and_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_media's_power_to_facilitate_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_media's_power_to_facilitate_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Social media's power to facilitate topics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_media's_power_to_facilitate_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_sectors_and_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_sectors_and_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Research sectors and applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_sectors_and_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research sectors and applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_sectors_and_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Information_access" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_access"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Information access</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_access-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Information architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Information management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_retrieval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_retrieval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Information retrieval</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_retrieval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_seeking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_seeking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Information seeking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_seeking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Information society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Knowledge representation and reasoning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Information science</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">54 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inligtingkunde" title="Inligtingkunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Inligtingkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم المعلومات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم المعلومات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n" title="Ciencia de la información – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ciencia de la información" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nformasiya_elmi" title="İnformasiya elmi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnformasiya elmi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="بیلگی بیلیمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیلگی بیلیمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D2%93%D0%BB%D2%AF%D0%BC%D3%99%D1%82_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Мәғлүмәт фәне – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мәғлүмәт фәне" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информационна наука – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Информационна наука" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncia_de_la_informaci%C3%B3" title="Ciència de la informació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciència de la informació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_v%C4%9Bda" title="Informační věda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Informační věda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyddor_gwybodaeth" title="Gwyddor gwybodaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwyddor gwybodaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsvidenskab" title="Informationsvidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Informationsvidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationswissenschaft" title="Informationswissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Informationswissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infoteadus" title="Infoteadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Infoteadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Επιστήμη της πληροφόρησης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστήμη της πληροφόρησης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n" title="Ciencia de la información – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia de la información" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informazioaren_zientzia" title="Informazioaren zientzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Informazioaren zientzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم اطلاعات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علم اطلاعات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_de_l%27information" title="Science de l'information – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Science de l'information" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_da_informaci%C3%B3n" title="Ciencia da información – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ciencia da información" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="정보과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정보과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सूचना विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सूचना विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_informasi" title="Ilmu informasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu informasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/INzululwazi_yoKwaziswa" title="INzululwazi yoKwaziswa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="INzululwazi yoKwaziswa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2" title="מדעי המידע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדעי המידע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="საინფორმაციო მეცნიერება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საინფორმაციო მეცნიერება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C4%81cijas_zin%C4%81tne" title="Informācijas zinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Informācijas zinātne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informologija" title="Informologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Informologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A1ci%C3%B3tudom%C3%A1ny" title="Információtudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Információtudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информациска наука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Информациска наука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains_maklumat" title="Sains maklumat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sains maklumat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatiekunde" title="Informatiekunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Informatiekunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%83%85%E5%A0%B1%E5%AD%A6" title="情報学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="情報学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasjonsvitenskap" title="Informasjonsvitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Informasjonsvitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸੂਚਨਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੂਚਨਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatologia" title="Informatologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Informatologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncia_da_informa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Ciência da informação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ciência da informação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9Ba_informa%C8%9Biei" title="Știința informației – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Știința informației" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Информационная наука – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Информационная наука" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca_e_informacionit" title="Shkenca e informacionit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkenca e informacionit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="තොරතුරුවේදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="තොරතුරුවේදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_veda" title="Informačná veda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Informačná veda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijska_znanost" title="Informacijska znanost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Informacijska znanost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijska_nauka" title="Informacijska nauka – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Informacijska nauka" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijska_nauka" title="Informacijska nauka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Informacijska nauka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaatiotutkimus" title="Informaatiotutkimus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Informaatiotutkimus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsvetenskap" title="Informationsvetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Informationsvetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தகவல் அறிவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தகவல் அறிவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="సమాచార శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సమాచార శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8" title="วิทยาการสารสนเทศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิทยาการสารสนเทศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgi_bilimi" title="Bilgi bilimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgi bilimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Наукова інформатика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Наукова інформатика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc_th%C3%B4ng_tin" title="Khoa học thông tin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khoa học thông tin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="資訊科學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="資訊科學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="信息科学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="信息科学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q16387#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Information_Sciences_(journal)" title="Information Sciences (journal)"><i>Information Sciences</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Split plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this article be <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a></b> into multiple articles accessible from a <a href="/wiki/Help:Disambiguation" title="Help:Disambiguation">disambiguation page</a>. Please <a href="/wiki/Talk:Information_science#Split_and_dab" title="Talk:Information science">discuss this</a> on the article's talk page. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bibliometrics_definition.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Visualisation of various methodological approaches to gaining insights from meta data areas. Including: infometrics, bibliometrics, cybermetrics, scientometrics, webometrics, altmetrics, and placed within Quantative Science Studies" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Bibliometrics_definition.svg/220px-Bibliometrics_definition.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Bibliometrics_definition.svg/330px-Bibliometrics_definition.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Bibliometrics_definition.svg/440px-Bibliometrics_definition.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="735" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>Visualization of various methodological approaches to gaining insights from meta data areas </figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output 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nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding: 0.3em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information science</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #CCC;"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_information_science" title="Outline of information science">General aspects</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_access" title="Information access">Access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_architecture" title="Information architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_behavior" title="Information behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Retrieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_seeking" title="Information seeking">Seeking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_society" title="Information society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_organization" title="Knowledge organization">Knowledge organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #CCC;"> Related fields and subfields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categorization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Information_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Information science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:LIS_SidebarPicture.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/LIS_SidebarPicture.png/250px-LIS_SidebarPicture.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/LIS_SidebarPicture.png/375px-LIS_SidebarPicture.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/LIS_SidebarPicture.png/500px-LIS_SidebarPicture.png 2x" data-file-width="2544" data-file-height="1644" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science" title="Outline of library and information science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science" title="Glossary of library and information science">Glossary</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/History_of_libraries" title="History of libraries">Libraries</a> - <a href="/wiki/Information_history" title="Information history">Information</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Focus</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Archives_management" title="Archives management">Archives management</a> - <a href="/wiki/Collections_management" title="Collections management">Collections management</a> (<a href="/wiki/Preservation_(library_and_archive)" title="Preservation (library and archive)">Preservation</a>) - <a href="/wiki/Data_management" title="Data management">Data management</a> - <a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information management">Information management</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cataloging_(library_science)" title="Cataloging (library science)">cataloguing</a>) - <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge management</a> - <a href="/wiki/Library_management" title="Library management">Library management</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Curation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a> - <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a> - <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> - <a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">Documents</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">Artefacts</a> - <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Interdisciplinary fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> - <a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a> - <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a> - <a href="/wiki/Data_science" title="Data science">Data science</a> - <a href="/wiki/Documentation_science" title="Documentation science">Documentation science</a> - <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> - <a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">Library science</a> - <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information science</a> - <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Areas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Academic_library" title="Academic library">Academic</a> - <a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archival</a> - <a href="/wiki/Law_library" title="Law library">Legal</a> - <a href="/wiki/Medical_library" title="Medical library">Health</a> - <a href="/wiki/Private_library" title="Private library">Private</a> - <a href="/wiki/Public_library" title="Public library">Public</a> - <a href="/wiki/School_library" title="School library">School</a> - <a href="/wiki/Special_library" title="Special library">Special</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Libraries" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Libraries">WikiProject</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Library_and_information_science" title="Category:Library and information science">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:LibraryandInformation-TopicSidebar" title="Template:LibraryandInformation-TopicSidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:LibraryandInformation-TopicSidebar" title="Template talk:LibraryandInformation-TopicSidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:LibraryandInformation-TopicSidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:LibraryandInformation-TopicSidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Information science</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an academic field which is primarily concerned with <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analysis</a>, collection, <a href="/wiki/Classification" title="Classification">classification</a>, manipulation, storage, <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">retrieval</a>, movement, dissemination, and protection of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Practitioners within and outside the field study the application and the usage of knowledge in <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a> in addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing <a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">information systems</a> with the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems. </p><p>Historically, information science is associated with informatics, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_science" title="Data science">data science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Documentation_science" title="Documentation science">documentation science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">library science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence agencies">intelligence agencies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, information science also incorporates aspects of diverse fields such as <a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">archival science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museology" title="Museology">museology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">public policy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foundations">Foundations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Foundations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope_and_approach">Scope and approach</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scope and approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Information science focuses on understanding <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problems</a> from the perspective of the stakeholders involved and then applying information and other technologies as needed. In other words, it tackles systemic problems first rather than individual pieces of <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> within that system. In this respect, one can see information science as a response to <a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">technological determinism</a>, the belief that technology "develops by its own laws, that it realizes its own potential, limited only by the material resources available and the creativity of its developers. It must therefore be regarded as an autonomous system controlling and ultimately permeating all other subsystems of society."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many universities have entire colleges, departments or schools devoted to the study of information science, while numerous information-science scholars work in disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>. Several institutions have formed an I-School Caucus (see <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_I-Schools" class="mw-redirect" title="List of I-Schools">List of I-Schools</a></i>), but numerous others besides these also have comprehensive information foci. </p><p>Within information science, current issues as of 2013<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a> for science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupware" class="mw-redirect" title="Groupware">Groupware</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_sensitive_design" title="Value sensitive design">Value sensitive design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iterative_design" title="Iterative design">Iterative design</a> processes</li> <li>The ways people generate, use and find information</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definitions">Definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first known usage of the term "information science" was in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An early definition of Information science (going back to 1968, the year when the <i>American Documentation Institute</i> renamed itself as the <i>American Society for Information Science and Technology</i>) states: </p> <dl><dd>"Information science is that discipline that investigates the properties and behavior of information, the forces governing the flow of information, and the means of processing information for optimum accessibility and usability. It is concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the origination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and utilization of information. This includes the authenticity of information representations in both natural and artificial systems, the use of codes for efficient message transmission, and the study of information processing devices and techniques such as computers and their programming systems. It is an interdisciplinary science derived from and related to such fields as mathematics, logic, linguistics, psychology, computer technology, operations research, the graphic arts, communications, management, and other similar fields. It has both a pure science component, which inquires into the subject without regard to its application, and an applied science component, which develops services and products." (<a href="#CITEREFBorko1968">Borko 1968</a>, p. 3).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Related_terms">Related terms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Related terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some authors use <a href="/wiki/Informatics" title="Informatics">informatics</a> as a synonym for <i>information science</i>. This is especially true when related to the concept developed by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Ivanovich_Mikhailov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Ivanovich Mikhailov">A. I. Mikhailov</a> and other Soviet authors in the mid-1960s. The Mikhailov school saw informatics as a discipline related to the study of scientific information.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Informatics is difficult to precisely define because of the rapidly evolving and <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> nature of the field. Definitions reliant on the nature of the tools used for deriving meaningful information from data are emerging in Informatics academic programs.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regional differences and international terminology complicate the problem. Some people<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2014)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> note that much of what is called "Informatics" today was once called "Information Science" – at least in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Medical_Informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Informatics">Medical Informatics</a>. For example, when library scientists began also to use the phrase "Information Science" to refer to their work, the term "informatics" emerged: </p> <ul><li>in the United States as a response by computer scientists to distinguish their work from that of <a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">library science</a></li> <li>in Britain as a term for a science of information that studies natural, as well as artificial or engineered, information-processing systems</li></ul> <p>Another term discussed as a synonym for "information studies" is "<a href="/wiki/Information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Information systems">information systems</a>". <a href="/wiki/Brian_Campbell_Vickery" title="Brian Campbell Vickery">Brian Campbell Vickery</a>'s <i>Information Systems</i> (1973) placed information systems within IS.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="#CITEREFEllisAllenWilson1999">Ellis, Allen & Wilson (1999)</a>, on the other hand, provided a bibliometric investigation describing the relation between two <i>different</i> fields: "information science" and "information systems".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_information">Philosophy of information</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Philosophy of information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></div> <p>Philosophy of information studies conceptual issues arising at the intersection of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. It includes the investigation of the conceptual nature and basic principles of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>, including its dynamics, utilisation and sciences, as well as the elaboration and application of information-theoretic and computational methodologies to its philosophical problems.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ontology">Ontology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ontology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology (information science)</a></div> <p>In science and information science, an ontology formally represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a <a href="/wiki/Domain_of_discourse" title="Domain of discourse">domain</a>, and the relationships between those concepts. It can be used to <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> about the entities within that domain and may be used to describe the domain. </p><p>More specifically, an ontology is a model for describing the world that consists of a set of types, properties, and relationship types. Exactly what is provided around these varies, but they are the essentials of an ontology. There is also generally an expectation that there be a close resemblance between the real world and the features of the model in an ontology.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In theory, an ontology is a "formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualisation".<sup id="cite_ref-TRG93_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TRG93-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An ontology renders shared <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">taxonomy</a> which models a domain with the definition of objects and/or concepts and their properties and relations.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ontologies are the structural frameworks for organizing information and are used in <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">systems engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical informatics">biomedical informatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">library science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enterprise_bookmarking" title="Enterprise bookmarking">enterprise bookmarking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Information_architecture" title="Information architecture">information architecture</a> as a form of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">knowledge representation</a> about the world or some part of it. The creation of domain ontologies is also essential to the definition and use of an <a href="/wiki/Enterprise_architecture_framework" title="Enterprise architecture framework">enterprise architecture framework</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_or_discipline?"><span id="Science_or_discipline.3F"></span>Science or discipline?</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Science or discipline?"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Authors such as Ingwersen<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue that informatology has problems defining its own boundaries with other disciplines. According to Popper "Information science operates busily on an ocean of commonsense practical applications, which increasingly involve the computer ... and on commonsense views of language, of communication, of knowledge and Information, computer science is in little better state".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other authors, such as Furner, deny that information science is a true science.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Careers">Careers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Careers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_scientist">Information scientist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Information scientist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_scientist" title="Information scientist">Information scientist</a></div> <p>An information scientist is an individual, usually with a relevant subject degree or high level of subject knowledge, who provides focused information to scientific and technical research staff in industry or to subject faculty and students in academia. The industry *information specialist/scientist* and the academic information subject specialist/librarian have, in general, similar subject background training, but the academic position holder will be required to hold a second advanced degree (MLS/MI/MA in IS, e.g.) in information and library studies in addition to a subject master's. The title also applies to an individual carrying out research in information science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systems_analyst">Systems analyst</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Systems analyst"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Systems_analyst" title="Systems analyst">Systems analyst</a></div> <p>A systems analyst works on creating, designing, and improving information systems for a specific need. Often systems analysts work with one or more <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">businesses</a> to evaluate and implement organizational processes and techniques for accessing information in order to improve <a href="/wiki/Efficiency" title="Efficiency">efficiency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> within the organization (s). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_professional">Information professional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Information professional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_professional" title="Information professional">Information professional</a></div> <p>An information professional is an individual who preserves, organizes, and disseminates information. Information professionals are skilled in the organization and retrieval of recorded knowledge. Traditionally, their work has been with print materials, but these skills are being increasingly used with electronic, visual, audio, and digital materials. Information professionals work in a variety of public, private, non-profit, and academic institutions. Information professionals can also be found within organisational and industrial contexts. Performing roles that include system design and development and system analysis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Information_history" title="Information history">Information history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_beginnings">Early beginnings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early beginnings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz,_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/170px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/255px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/340px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, a German <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> who wrote primarily in Latin and French. His fields of study were <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Information science, in studying the collection, <a href="/wiki/Classification" title="Classification">classification</a>, manipulation, storage, <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">retrieval</a> and dissemination of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> has origins in the common stock of human knowledge. Information analysis has been carried out by scholars at least as early as the time of the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Empire">Assyrian Empire</a> with the emergence of cultural depositories, what is today known as libraries and archives.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Institutionally, information science emerged in the 19th century along with many other social science disciplines. As a science, however, it finds its institutional roots in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>, beginning with publication of the first issues of <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical Transactions">Philosophical Transactions</a>,</i> generally considered the first scientific journal, in 1665 by the Royal Society (London). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Institutionalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutionalization">institutionalization</a> of science occurred throughout the 18th century. In 1731, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia" title="Library Company of Philadelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia</a>, the first library owned by a group of public citizens, which quickly expanded beyond the realm of books and became a center of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific experimentation">scientific experimentation</a>, and which hosted public exhibitions of scientific experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benjamin Franklin invested a town in <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> with a collection of books that the town voted to make available to all free of charge, forming the first <a href="/wiki/Public_library" title="Public library">public library</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Academie de Chirurgia (<a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>) published <i>Memoires pour les Chirurgiens</i>, generally considered to be the first <a href="/wiki/Medical_journal" title="Medical journal">medical journal</a>, in 1736. The <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>, patterned on the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> (<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>), was founded in Philadelphia in 1743. As numerous other scientific journals and societies were founded, <a href="/wiki/Alois_Senefelder" title="Alois Senefelder">Alois Senefelder</a> developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Lithography" title="Lithography">lithography</a> for use in mass printing work in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> in 1796. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Marie_Jacquard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard.jpg/220px-Joseph_Marie_Jacquard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard.jpg/330px-Joseph_Marie_Jacquard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard.jpg/440px-Joseph_Marie_Jacquard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By the 19th century the first signs of information science emerged as separate and distinct from other sciences and social sciences but in conjunction with communication and computation. In 1801, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a> invented a punched card system to control operations of the cloth weaving loom in France. It was the first use of "memory storage of patterns" system.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As chemistry journals emerged throughout the 1820s and 1830s,<sup id="cite_ref-Emard_1976_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emard_1976-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> developed his "difference engine", the first step towards the modern computer, in 1822 and his "analytical engine" by 1834. By 1843 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Hoe">Richard Hoe</a> developed the rotary press, and in 1844 <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a> sent the first public telegraph message. By 1848 William F. Poole begins the <i>Index to Periodical Literature,</i> the first general periodical literature index in the US. </p><p>In 1854 <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a> published <i>An Investigation into Laws of Thought...,</i> which lays the foundations for <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a>, which is later used in <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">information retrieval</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1860 a congress was held at Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule to discuss the feasibility of establishing a systematic and rational nomenclature for chemistry. The congress did not reach any conclusive results, but several key participants returned home with <a href="/wiki/Stanislao_Cannizzaro" title="Stanislao Cannizzaro">Stanislao Cannizzaro</a>'s outline (1858), which ultimately convinces them of the validity of his scheme for calculating atomic weights.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1865, the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> began a catalog of current scientific papers, which became the <i>International Catalogue of Scientific Papers</i> in 1902.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year the Royal Society began publication of its <i>Catalogue of Papers</i> in London. In 1868, Christopher Sholes, Carlos Glidden, and S. W. Soule produced the <a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">first practical typewriter</a>. By 1872 Lord Kelvin devised an analogue computer to predict the tides, and by 1875 <a href="/wiki/Frank_Stephen_Baldwin" title="Frank Stephen Baldwin">Frank Stephen Baldwin</a> was granted the first US patent for a practical calculating machine that performs four arithmetic functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Emard_1976_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emard_1976-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> invented the telephone and phonograph in 1876 and 1877 respectively, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Library_Association" title="American Library Association">American Library Association</a> was founded in Philadelphia. In 1879 <i>Index Medicus</i> was first issued by the Library of the Surgeon General, U.S. Army, with <a href="/wiki/John_Shaw_Billings" title="John Shaw Billings">John Shaw Billings</a> as librarian, and later the library issues <i>Index Catalogue,</i> which achieved an international reputation as the most complete catalog of medical literature.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_documentation">European documentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: European documentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The discipline of <i><a href="/wiki/Documentation_science" title="Documentation science">documentation science</a></i>, which marks the earliest theoretical foundations of modern information science, emerged in the late part of the 19th century in Europe together with several more scientific indexes whose purpose was to organize scholarly literature. Many information science historians cite <a href="/wiki/Paul_Otlet" title="Paul Otlet">Paul Otlet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henri_La_Fontaine" title="Henri La Fontaine">Henri La Fontaine</a> as the fathers of information science with the founding of the International Institute of Bibliography (IIB) in 1895.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second generation of European Documentalists emerged after the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, most notably <a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Briet" title="Suzanne Briet">Suzanne Briet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, "information science" as a term is not popularly used in academia until sometime in the latter part of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_2001,_p7_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day_2001,_p7-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Documentalists emphasized the utilitarian integration of technology and technique toward specific social goals. According to Ronald Day, "As an organized system of techniques and technologies, documentation was understood as a player in the historical development of global organization in modernity – indeed, a major player inasmuch as that organization was dependent on the organization and transmission of information."<sup id="cite_ref-Day_2001,_p7_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day_2001,_p7-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Otlet and Lafontaine (who won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in 1913) not only envisioned later technical innovations but also projected a global vision for information and <a href="/wiki/Information_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Information technologies">information technologies</a> that speaks directly to postwar visions of a global "information society". Otlet and Lafontaine established numerous organizations dedicated to standardization, bibliography, international associations, and consequently, international cooperation. These organizations were fundamental for ensuring international production in commerce, information, communication and modern economic development, and they later found their global form in such institutions as the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. Otlet designed the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Decimal_Classification" title="Universal Decimal Classification">Universal Decimal Classification</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/Melville_Dewey" class="mw-redirect" title="Melville Dewey">Melville Dewey</a>'s decimal classification system.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_2001,_p7_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day_2001,_p7-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although he lived decades before computers and networks emerged, what he discussed prefigured what ultimately became the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>. His vision of a great network of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> focused on <a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">documents</a> and included the notions of <a href="/wiki/Hyperlink" title="Hyperlink">hyperlinks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Search_engine_(computing)" title="Search engine (computing)">search engines</a>, remote access, and <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social networks</a>. </p><p>Otlet not only imagined that all the world's knowledge should be interlinked and made available remotely to anyone, but he also proceeded to build a structured document collection. This collection involved standardized paper sheets and cards filed in custom-designed cabinets according to a hierarchical index (which culled information worldwide from diverse sources) and a commercial information retrieval service (which answered written requests by copying relevant information from index cards). Users of this service were even warned if their query was likely to produce more than 50 results per search.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_2001,_p7_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day_2001,_p7-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1937 documentation had formally been institutionalized, as evidenced by the founding of the American Documentation Institute (ADI), later called the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_Information_Science_and_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="American Society for Information Science and Technology">American Society for Information Science and Technology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_to_modern_information_science">Transition to modern information science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Transition to modern information science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg/220px-Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg/330px-Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg/440px-Vannevar_Bush_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3333" data-file-height="2667" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, a famous information scientist, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1940</span>–1944</figcaption></figure> <p>With the 1950s came increasing awareness of the potential of automatic devices for literature searching and information storage and retrieval. As these concepts grew in magnitude and potential, so did the variety of information science interests. By the 1960s and 70s, there was a move from batch processing to online modes, from mainframe to mini and microcomputers. Additionally, traditional boundaries among disciplines began to fade and many information science scholars joined with other programs. They further made themselves multidisciplinary by incorporating disciplines in the sciences, humanities and social sciences, as well as other professional programs, such as <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> in their curriculum. </p><p>Among the individuals who had distinct opportunities to facilitate interdisciplinary activity targeted at scientific communication was <a href="/wiki/Foster_E._Mohrhardt" title="Foster E. Mohrhardt">Foster E. Mohrhardt</a>, director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Agricultural_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="National Agricultural Library">National Agricultural Library</a> from 1954 to 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1980s, large databases, such as Grateful Med at the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library of Medicine">National Library of Medicine</a>, and user-oriented services such as <a href="/wiki/Dialog_(online_database)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialog (online database)">Dialog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compuserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Compuserve">Compuserve</a>, were for the first time accessible by individuals from their personal computers. The 1980s also saw the emergence of numerous <a href="/wiki/Special_interest_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Special interest groups">special interest groups</a> to respond to the changes. By the end of the decade, special interest groups were available involving non-print media, social sciences, energy and the environment, and community information systems. Today, information science largely examines technical bases, social consequences, and theoretical understanding of online databases, widespread use of databases in government, industry, and education, and the development of the Internet and World Wide Web.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Information_dissemination_in_the_21st_century">Information dissemination in the 21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Information dissemination in the 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changing_definition">Changing definition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Changing definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dissemination" title="Dissemination">Dissemination</a> has historically been interpreted as unilateral communication of information. With the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a>, and the explosion in popularity of <a href="/wiki/Online_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Online communities">online communities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> has changed the information landscape in many respects, and creates both new modes of communication and new types of information",<sup id="cite_ref-embedded_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-embedded-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> changing the interpretation of the definition of dissemination. The nature of social networks allows for faster diffusion of information than through organizational sources.<sup id="cite_ref-diffusion_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diffusion-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The internet has changed the way we view, use, create, and store information; now it is time to re-evaluate the way we share and spread it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_social_media_on_people_and_industry">Impact of social media on people and industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Impact of social media on people and industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social media networks provide an open information environment for the mass of people who have limited time or access to traditional outlets of information diffusion,<sup id="cite_ref-diffusion_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diffusion-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is an "increasingly mobile and social world [that] demands...new types of information skills".<sup id="cite_ref-embedded_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-embedded-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social media integration as an access point is a very useful and mutually beneficial tool for users and providers. All major news providers have visibility and an access point through networks such as <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> maximizing their breadth of audience. Through social media people are directed to, or provided with, information by people they know. The ability to "share, like, and comment on...content"<sup id="cite_ref-facebook_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-facebook-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> increases the reach farther and wider than traditional methods. People like to interact with information, they enjoy including the people they know in their circle of knowledge. Sharing through social media has become so influential that publishers must "play nice" if they desire to succeed. Although, it is often mutually beneficial for publishers and Facebook to "share, promote and uncover new content"<sup id="cite_ref-facebook_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-facebook-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to improve both user base experiences. The impact of popular opinion can spread in unimaginable ways. Social media allows interaction through simple to learn and access tools; <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i> offers an app through Facebook, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i> goes a step further and offers an independent social app that was downloaded by 19.5 million users in six months,<sup id="cite_ref-facebook_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-facebook-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proving how interested people are in the new way of being provided information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_media's_power_to_facilitate_topics"><span id="Social_media.27s_power_to_facilitate_topics"></span>Social media's power to facilitate topics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Social media's power to facilitate topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The connections and networks sustained through social media help information providers learn what is important to people. The connections people have throughout the world enable the exchange of information at an unprecedented rate. It is for this reason that these networks have been realized for the potential they provide. "Most news media monitor Twitter for breaking news",<sup id="cite_ref-diffusion_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diffusion-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as news anchors frequently request the audience to tweet pictures of events.<sup id="cite_ref-facebook_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-facebook-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The users and viewers of the shared information have earned "opinion-making and agenda-setting power"<sup id="cite_ref-diffusion_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diffusion-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This channel has been recognized for the usefulness of providing targeted information based on public demand. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_sectors_and_applications">Research sectors and applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Research sectors and applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Getting_to_Philosophy_graph_of_Wikipedia_articles_by_Pine.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Getting_to_Philosophy_graph_of_Wikipedia_articles_by_Pine.png/220px-Getting_to_Philosophy_graph_of_Wikipedia_articles_by_Pine.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Getting_to_Philosophy_graph_of_Wikipedia_articles_by_Pine.png/330px-Getting_to_Philosophy_graph_of_Wikipedia_articles_by_Pine.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Getting_to_Philosophy_graph_of_Wikipedia_articles_by_Pine.png/440px-Getting_to_Philosophy_graph_of_Wikipedia_articles_by_Pine.png 2x" data-file-width="1218" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>This graph shows links between <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> articles. Information science includes studying how topics relate to each other, and how readers relate concepts to each other.</figcaption></figure> <p>The following areas are some of those that information science investigates and develops. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_access">Information access</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Information access"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Information access is an area of research at the intersection of <a href="/wiki/Informatics" title="Informatics">Informatics</a>, Information Science, <a href="/wiki/Information_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Security">Information Security</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Language Technology">Language Technology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Science">Computer Science</a>. The objectives of information access research are to automate the processing of large and unwieldy amounts of information and to simplify users' access to it. What about assigning privileges and restricting access to unauthorized users? The extent of access should be defined in the level of clearance granted for the information. Applicable technologies include <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">information retrieval</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">text mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_editing" class="mw-redirect" title="Text editing">text editing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">machine translation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Text_categorisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Text categorisation">text categorisation</a>. In discussion, information access is often defined as concerning the insurance of free and closed or public access to information and is brought up in discussions on <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patent_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent law">patent law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. Public libraries need resources to provide knowledge of information assurance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_architecture">Information architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Information architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_architecture" title="Information architecture">Information architecture</a></div> <p>Information architecture (IA) is the art and science of organizing and labelling <a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">websites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intranet" title="Intranet">intranets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Online_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Online communities">online communities</a> and software to support usability.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an emerging discipline and <i>community of practice</i> focused on bringing together principles of <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a> to the <i>digital landscape</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically it involves a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">model</a> or <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> which is used and applied to activities that require explicit details of complex <a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">information systems</a>. These activities include <a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">library</a> systems and <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> development. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_management">Information management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Information management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information management">Information management</a></div> <p>Information management (IM) is the collection and management of information from one or more sources and the distribution of that information to one or more audiences. This sometimes involves those who have a stake in, or a right to that information. Management means the organization of and control over the structure, processing and delivery of information. Throughout the 1970s this was largely limited to files, file maintenance, and the life cycle management of paper-based files, other media and records. With the proliferation of information technology starting in the 1970s, the job of information management took on a new light and also began to include the field of data maintenance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_retrieval">Information retrieval</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Information retrieval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></div> <p>Information retrieval (IR) is the area of study concerned with searching for documents, for <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> within documents, and for <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> about documents, as well as that of searching <a href="/wiki/Structured_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Structured storage">structured storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relational_database" title="Relational database">relational databases</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>. Automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called "<a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">information overload</a>". Many universities and <a href="/wiki/Public_libraries" class="mw-redirect" title="Public libraries">public libraries</a> use IR systems to provide access to books, journals and other documents. <a href="/wiki/Web_search_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Web search engine">Web search engines</a> are the most visible <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval_applications" class="mw-redirect" title="Information retrieval applications">IR applications</a>. </p><p>An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a <a href="/wiki/Query_string" title="Query string">query</a> into the system. Queries are formal statements of <a href="/wiki/Information_need" class="mw-redirect" title="Information need">information needs</a>, for example search strings in web search engines. In information retrieval a query does not uniquely identify a single object in the collection. Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of <a href="/wiki/Relevancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Relevancy">relevancy</a>. </p><p>An object is an entity that is represented by information in a <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a>. User queries are matched against the database information. Depending on the <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval_applications" class="mw-redirect" title="Information retrieval applications">application</a> the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images,<sup id="cite_ref-goodron2000_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goodron2000-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> audio,<sup id="cite_ref-Foote99_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foote99-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mind_maps" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind maps">mind maps</a><sup id="cite_ref-Beel2009_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beel2009-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or videos. Often the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system, but are instead represented in the system by document surrogates or metadata. </p><p>Most IR systems compute a numeric score on how well each object in the database match the query, and rank the objects according to this value. The top ranking objects are then shown to the user. The process may then be iterated if the user wishes to refine the query.<sup id="cite_ref-Frakes1992_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frakes1992-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_seeking">Information seeking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Information seeking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_seeking" title="Information seeking">Information seeking</a></div> <p>Information seeking is the process or activity of attempting to obtain information in both human and technological contexts. Information seeking is related to, but different from, information retrieval (IR). </p><p>Much library and information science (LIS) research has focused on the information-seeking practices of practitioners within various fields of professional work. Studies have been carried out into the information-seeking behaviors of librarians,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> academics,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> medical professionals,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> engineers<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lawyers<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (among others). Much of this research has drawn on the work done by Leckie, Pettigrew (now Fisher) and Sylvain, who in 1996 conducted an extensive review of the LIS literature (as well as the literature of other academic fields) on professionals' information seeking. The authors proposed an analytic model of professionals' information seeking behaviour, intended to be generalizable across the professions, thus providing a platform for future research in the area. The model was intended to "prompt new insights... and give rise to more refined and applicable theories of information seeking" (<a href="#CITEREFLeckiePettigrewSylvain1996">Leckie, Pettigrew & Sylvain 1996</a>, p. 188). The model has been adapted by <a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2001">Wilkinson (2001)</a> who proposes a model of the information seeking of lawyers. Recent studies in this topic address the concept of information-gathering that "provides a broader perspective that adheres better to professionals' work-related reality and desired skills."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="#CITEREFSolomonBronstein2021">Solomon & Bronstein 2021</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_society">Information society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Information society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_society" title="Information society">Information society</a></div> <p>An information society is a <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> where the creation, distribution, diffusion, uses, integration and manipulation of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> is a significant economic, political, and cultural activity. The aim of an information society is to gain competitive advantage internationally, through using <a href="/wiki/IT" class="mw-redirect" title="IT">IT</a> in a creative and productive way. The <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">knowledge economy</a> is its economic counterpart, whereby wealth is created through the economic exploitation of understanding. People who have the means to partake in this form of society are sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Digital_citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital citizens">digital citizens</a>. </p><p>Basically, an information society is the means of getting information from one place to another (<a href="#CITEREFWark1997">Wark 1997</a>, p. 22). As technology has become more advanced over time so too has the way we have adapted in sharing this information with each other. </p><p>Information society theory discusses the role of information and information technology in society, the question of which key concepts should be used for characterizing contemporary society, and how to define such concepts. It has become a specific branch of contemporary sociology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Knowledge representation and reasoning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></div> <p>Knowledge representation (KR) is an area of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> research aimed at representing knowledge in symbols to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Inferencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferencing">inferencing</a> from those <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> elements, creating new elements of knowledge. The KR can be made to be independent of the underlying knowledge model or knowledge base system (KBS) such as a <a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">semantic network</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-martin_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knowledge Representation (KR) research involves analysis of how to reason accurately and effectively and how best to use a set of symbols to represent a set of facts within a knowledge domain. A symbol vocabulary and a system of logic are combined to enable <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inferences</a> about elements in the KR to create new KR sentences. Logic is used to supply formal <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> of how reasoning functions should be applied to the symbols in the KR system. Logic is also used to define how operators can process and reshape the knowledge. Examples of operators and operations include, negation, conjunction, adverbs, adjectives, quantifiers and modal operators. The logic is interpretation theory. These elements—symbols, operators, and interpretation theory—are what give sequences of symbols meaning within a KR. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_and_information_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer and information science">Computer and information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Information_science_journals" title="Category:Information science journals">Category:Information science journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_science_awards#Information_science_awards" title="List of computer science awards">List of computer science awards § Information science awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_information_science" title="Outline of information science">Outline of information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_information_technology" title="Outline of information technology">Outline of information technology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFIbekweAparac-JelusicAbadal2019" class="citation journal cs1">Ibekwe, Fidelia; 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"The information-seeking behaviour of doctors: A review of the evidence". <i>Health Information & Libraries Journal</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 78–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1471-1842.2007.00713.x">10.1111/j.1471-1842.2007.00713.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17584211">17584211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Information+%26+Libraries+Journal&rft.atitle=The+information-seeking+behaviour+of+doctors%3A+A+review+of+the+evidence&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=78-94&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1471-1842.2007.00713.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17584211&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Harrison%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2010" class="citation journal cs1">Robinson, M. A. (2010). "An empirical analysis of engineers' information behaviors". <i>Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</i>. <b>61</b> (4): 640–658. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasi.21290">10.1002/asi.21290</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15130260">15130260</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Society+for+Information+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=An+empirical+analysis+of+engineers%27+information+behaviors&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=640-658&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fasi.21290&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15130260%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhlthauTama2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kuhlthau, C. C.; Tama, S. L. (2001). "Information search process of lawyers: A call for 'just for me' information services". <i>Journal of Documentation</i>. <b>57</b> (1): 25–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FEUM0000000007076">10.1108/EUM0000000007076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Documentation&rft.atitle=Information+search+process+of+lawyers%3A+A+call+for+%27just+for+me%27+information+services&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-43&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FEUM0000000007076&rft.aulast=Kuhlthau&rft.aufirst=C.+C.&rft.au=Tama%2C+S.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomonBronstein2021" class="citation journal cs1">Solomon, Yosef; Bronstein, Jenny (18 February 2021). "The information-gathering practice of liberal professionals in a workplace setting: More than just seeking information". <i>Journal of Librarianship and Information Science</i>. <b>54</b> (1). SAGE: 54–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0961000621992810">10.1177/0961000621992810</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0961-0006">0961-0006</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233978764">233978764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Librarianship+and+Information+Science&rft.atitle=The+information-gathering+practice+of+liberal+professionals+in+a+workplace+setting%3A+More+than+just+seeking+information&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=54-68&rft.date=2021-02-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233978764%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0961-0006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0961000621992810&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=Yosef&rft.au=Bronstein%2C+Jenny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-martin-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-martin_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webkb.org/doc/papers/iccs02/iswc02.pdf">"Knowledge representation in RDF/XML, KIF, Frame-CG and Formalized-English"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120326091831/http://www.webkb.org/doc/papers/iccs02/iswc02.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-03-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Philippe Martin, Distributed System Technology Centre, QLD, Australia, July 15–19, 2002</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorko1968" class="citation journal cs1">Borko, H. (1968). "Information science: What is it?". <i>American Documentation</i>. <b>19</b> (1). Wiley: 3–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasi.5090190103">10.1002/asi.5090190103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-946X">0096-946X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Documentation&rft.atitle=Information+science%3A+What+is+it%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-5&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fasi.5090190103&rft.issn=0096-946X&rft.aulast=Borko&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeckiePettigrewSylvain1996" class="citation journal cs1">Leckie, Gloria J.; Pettigrew, Karen E.; Sylvain, Christian (1996). "Modeling the information seeking of professionals: A general model derived from research on engineers, health care professionals, and lawyers". <i>Library Quarterly</i>. <b>66</b> (2): 161–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F602864">10.1086/602864</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7829155">7829155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Modeling+the+information+seeking+of+professionals%3A+A+general+model+derived+from+research+on+engineers%2C+health+care+professionals%2C+and+lawyers&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-193&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F602864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7829155%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Leckie&rft.aufirst=Gloria+J.&rft.au=Pettigrew%2C+Karen+E.&rft.au=Sylvain%2C+Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWark1997" class="citation book cs1">Wark, McKenzie (1997). <i>The Virtual Republic</i>. Allen & Unwin, St Leonards.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Virtual+Republic&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin%2C+St+Leonards&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Wark&rft.aufirst=McKenzie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2001" class="citation journal cs1">Wilkinson, Margaret A (2001). "Information sources used by lawyers in problem-solving: An empirical exploration". <i>Library & Information Science Research</i>. <b>23</b> (3): 257–276. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0740-8188%2801%2900082-2">10.1016/s0740-8188(01)00082-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59067811">59067811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+%26+Information+Science+Research&rft.atitle=Information+sources+used+by+lawyers+in+problem-solving%3A+An+empirical+exploration&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=257-276&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0740-8188%2801%2900082-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59067811%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Margaret+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhosrow-Pour2005" class="citation book cs1">Khosrow-Pour, Mehdi (2005-03-22). <i>Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology</i>. Idea Group Reference. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59140-553-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59140-553-5"><bdi>978-1-59140-553-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Information+Science+and+Technology&rft.pub=Idea+Group+Reference&rft.date=2005-03-22&rft.isbn=978-1-59140-553-5&rft.aulast=Khosrow-Pour&rft.aufirst=Mehdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_science&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/information_science" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/information science">information science</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Information science</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Information+science&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Information+science">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Information+science&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="official-website"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asist.org/">American Society for Information Science and Technology</a></span></span>, a "professional association that bridges the gap between information science practice and research. ASIS&T members represent the fields of information science, computer science, linguistics, management, librarianship, engineering, data science, information architecture, law, medicine, chemistry, education, and related technology".</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ischools.org/">iSchools</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.success.co.il/is/index.html">Knowledge Map of Information Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jis.sagepub.com/">Journal of Information Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlist.sir.arizona.edu/">Digital Library of Information Science and Technology open access archive for the Information Sciences</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120521123701/http://www.mesc.usgs.gov/ISB/Science.asp">Current Information Science Research at U.S. Geological Survey</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pitt.edu/~jimjim/syllabus.htm">Introduction to Information Science</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210513072108/http://www.pitt.edu/~jimjim/syllabus.htm">Archived</a> 2021-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110319220648/http://www.twu.edu/library/Nitecki/">The Nitecki Trilogy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110221054829/http://gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/bates/articles/Berkeley.html">Information science at the University of California at Berkeley in the 1960s: a memoir of student days</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libsci.sc.edu/bob/istchron/ISCNET/ISCHRON.HTM">Chronology of Information Science and Technology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514235219/http://www.libsci.sc.edu/bob/istchron/ISCNET/ISCHRON.HTM">Archived</a> 2011-05-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140605070024/http://libres.curtin.edu.au/">LIBRES – Library and Information Science Research Electronic Journal -</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_decision-making" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared decision-making">Shared decision-making</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Visualization_of_technical_information" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Visualization" title="Template:Visualization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Visualization" title="Template talk:Visualization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Visualization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Visualization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Visualization_of_technical_information" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a> of technical information</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_imaging" title="Chemical imaging">Chemical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Data visualization">Data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Educational visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_visualization" title="Flow visualization">Flow visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Information visualization">Information visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_diagram" title="Mathematical diagram">Mathematical visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_graphics" title="Molecular graphics">Molecular graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Product visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_visualization" title="Scientific visualization">Scientific visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_visualization" title="Social visualization">Social visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_visualization" title="Software visualization">Software visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_interface_design" title="User interface design">User interface design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume visualization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Image <br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chart" title="Chart">Chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagram" title="Diagram">Diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Engineering drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_of_a_function" title="Graph of a function">Graph of a function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">Map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_(graphics)" title="Plot (graphics)">Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankey_diagram" title="Sankey diagram">Sankey diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schematic" title="Schematic">Schematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_formula" title="Skeletal formula">Skeletal formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Statistical graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table_(information)" title="Table (information)">Table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_illustration" title="Technical illustration">Technical illustration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Ren%C3%A9_de_Fourcroy" title="Charles-René de Fourcroy">Charles-René de Fourcroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Monge" title="Gaspard Monge">Gaspard Monge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dupin" title="Charles Dupin">Charles Dupin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Adolphe Quetelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Michel_Guerry" title="André-Michel Guerry">André-Michel Guerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Playfair" title="William Playfair">William Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Minard" title="Charles Joseph Minard">Charles Joseph Minard</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Luigi_Perozzo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luigi Perozzo (page does not exist)">Luigi Perozzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Amasa_Walker" title="Francis Amasa Walker">Francis Amasa Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Venn" title="John Venn">John Venn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Byrne_(mathematician)" title="Oliver Byrne (mathematician)">Oliver Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Henry_Phineas_Riall_Sankey" title="Matthew Henry Phineas Riall Sankey">Matthew Sankey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Booth_(social_reformer)" title="Charles Booth (social reformer)">Charles Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_von_Mayr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg von Mayr (page does not exist)">Georg von Mayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Pohlke" title="Karl Wilhelm Pohlke">Karl Wilhelm Pohlke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Loua" title="Toussaint Loua">Toussaint Loua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Walter_Maunder" title="Edward Walter Maunder">Edward Walter Maunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gantt" title="Henry Gantt">Henry Gantt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lyon_Bowley" title="Arthur Lyon Bowley">Arthur Lyon Bowley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_G._Funkhouser" title="Howard G. Funkhouser">Howard G. Funkhouser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Peddle" title="John B. Peddle">John B. Peddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejnar_Hertzsprung" title="Ejnar Hertzsprung">Ejnar Hertzsprung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Henry Norris Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_O._Lorenz" title="Max O. Lorenz">Max O. Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Kahn" title="Fritz Kahn">Fritz Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Beck" title="Harry Beck">Harry Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Raisz" title="Erwin Raisz">Erwin Raisz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mid 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Bertin" title="Jacques Bertin">Jacques Bertin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Modley" title="Rudolf Modley">Rudolf Modley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Robinson" title="Arthur H. Robinson">Arthur H. Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Eleanor_Spear" title="Mary Eleanor Spear">Mary Eleanor Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Anderson" title="Edgar Anderson">Edgar Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Fisher" title="Howard T. Fisher">Howard T. Fisher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borden_Dent" title="Borden Dent">Borden Dent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Holmes" title="Nigel Holmes">Nigel Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Cleveland" title="William S. Cleveland">William S. Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_G._Robertson" title="George G. Robertson">George G. Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_H._McCormick" title="Bruce H. McCormick">Bruce H. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Plaisant" title="Catherine Plaisant">Catherine Plaisant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Card" title="Stuart Card">Stuart Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Hanrahan" title="Pat Hanrahan">Pat Hanrahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Tufte" title="Edward Tufte">Edward Tufte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Shneiderman" title="Ben Shneiderman">Ben Shneiderman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Friendly" title="Michael Friendly">Michael Friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Wainer" title="Howard Wainer">Howard Wainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_A._Pickover" title="Clifford A. Pickover">Clifford A. Pickover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_J._Rosenblum" title="Lawrence J. Rosenblum">Lawrence J. Rosenblum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._DeFanti" title="Thomas A. DeFanti">Thomas A. DeFanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Furnas" title="George Furnas">George Furnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheelagh_Carpendale" title="Sheelagh Carpendale">Sheelagh Carpendale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Brewer" title="Cynthia Brewer">Cynthia Brewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jock_D._Mackinlay" title="Jock D. Mackinlay">Jock D. Mackinlay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_MacEachren" title="Alan MacEachren">Alan MacEachren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Goodsell" title="David Goodsell">David Goodsell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwan-Liu_Ma" title="Kwan-Liu Ma">Kwan-Liu Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maltz" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Maltz">Michael Maltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leland_Wilkinson" title="Leland Wilkinson">Leland Wilkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Inselberg" title="Alfred Inselberg">Alfred Inselberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polo_Chau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polo Chau (page does not exist)">Polo Chau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Fry" title="Ben Fry">Ben Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Heer" title="Jeffrey Heer">Jeffrey Heer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Hullman" title="Jessica Hullman">Jessica Hullman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Kindlmann" title="Gordon Kindlmann">Gordon Kindlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Koblin" title="Aaron Koblin">Aaron Koblin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Krzywinski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Krzywinski (page does not exist)">Martin Krzywinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_R._Johnson" title="Christopher R. Johnson">Christopher R. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Lima" title="Manuel Lima">Manuel Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McCandless" title="David McCandless">David McCandless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Martino" title="Mauro Martino">Mauro Martino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maeda" title="John Maeda">John Maeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miriah_Meyer" title="Miriah Meyer">Miriah Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Munzner" title="Tamara Munzner">Tamara Munzner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ade_Olufeko" class="mw-redirect" title="Ade Olufeko">Ade Olufeko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanspeter_Pfister" title="Hanspeter Pfister">Hanspeter Pfister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Rosling" title="Hans Rosling">Hans Rosling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Silva_(computer_scientist)" title="Claudio Silva (computer scientist)">Claudio Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Stefaner" title="Moritz Stefaner">Moritz Stefaner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernanda_Vi%C3%A9gas" title="Fernanda Viégas">Fernanda Viégas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_M._Wattenberg" title="Martin M. Wattenberg">Martin Wattenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bang_Wong" title="Bang Wong">Bang Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadley_Wickham" title="Hadley Wickham">Hadley Wickham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related <br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartjunk" title="Chartjunk">Chartjunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_coding_in_data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">Color coding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Computer graphics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">in computer science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPK_coloring" title="CPK coloring">CPK coloring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">Graphic design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_organizer" title="Graphic organizer">Graphic organizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging science">Imaging science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infographic" title="Infographic">Information graphics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misleading_graph" title="Misleading graph">Misleading graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_drawing" title="Patent drawing">Patent drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_analytics" title="Visual analytics">Visual analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_cartography" title="Volume cartography">Volume cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_art" title="Information art">Information art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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