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<li id="toc-Relationships_with_North_America_and_Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationships_with_North_America_and_Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Relationships with North America and Mesoamerica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationships_with_North_America_and_Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_of_the_South_American_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_of_the_South_American_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Study of the South American languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study_of_the_South_American_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urheimat_of_some_linguistic_families" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urheimat_of_some_linguistic_families"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span><i>Urheimat</i> of some linguistic families</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urheimat_of_some_linguistic_families-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Problems_with_the_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_with_the_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Problems with the classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problems_with_the_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Important classifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Important_classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages_by_geographic_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages_by_geographic_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Languages by geographic region</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages_by_geographic_region-sublist" 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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages_by_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages_by_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Languages by country</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages_by_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lexicons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Lexicons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexicons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_ind%C3%ADgenas_de_Am%C3%A9rica_del_Sur" title="Lenguas indígenas de América del Sur – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas indígenas de América del Sur" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Индейские языки Южной Америки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Индейские языки Южной Америки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Pre-Columbian languages of subcontinent</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SouthAmerican_families.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/SouthAmerican_families.png/280px-SouthAmerican_families.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="377" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/SouthAmerican_families.png/420px-SouthAmerican_families.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/SouthAmerican_families.png/560px-SouthAmerican_families.png 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="1341" /></a><figcaption>The principal families of South America (except Quechua, Aymaran, and Mapuche).</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>indigenous languages of South America</b> are those whose origin dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-Columbian era</a>. The subcontinent has great linguistic diversity, but, as the number of speakers of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">indigenous languages</a> is diminishing, it is estimated that it could become one of the least linguistically diverse regions of the planet. </p><p>About 600 indigenous languages are known from South America, Central America, and the Antilles (see <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anexo:Lenguas_ind%C3%ADgenas_de_Am%C3%A9rica#Sudamérica" class="extiw" title="es:Anexo:Lenguas indígenas de América">List of indigenous languages of South America</a>), although the actual number of languages that existed in the past may have been substantially higher. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isolates_South_America.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Isolates_South_America.png/280px-Isolates_South_America.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="377" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Isolates_South_America.png/420px-Isolates_South_America.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Isolates_South_America.png/560px-Isolates_South_America.png 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolates</a> of South America</figcaption></figure> <p>The indigenous languages of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Antilles" title="Antilles">Antilles</a> completely covered the subcontinent and the Antilles at the beginning of the 16th century. The estimates of the total population are very imprecise, ranging between ten and twenty million inhabitants. At the beginning of 1980, there were about 16 million speakers of indigenous languages; three quarters of them lived in the Central Andes.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of existing tribes and ethnic groups is around 1500, although some authors have suggested it might reach 2000. However, it is uncertain if each of these groups has a unique language, so the figures likely indicate an upper bound for the actual number of languages spoken. For many of the known historical groups, there is no record of their language and many of them are extinct today. There is only one record of some 550 or 600 languages, with some 180 of them totally extinct today. In many cases, the fragmented records do not allow us to decide if they have to do with different languages or of divergent but mutually intelligible <a href="/wiki/Dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects">dialects</a> of the same language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationships_with_North_America_and_Mesoamerica">Relationships with North America and Mesoamerica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Relationships with North America and Mesoamerica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the indigenous people of South America are historically from North America, the problem of the origin involves looking for genetic and linguistic relationships with the indigenous groups of North America and Mesoamerica. Currently the only linguistic family of South America that shows a relationship with languages situated outside the region are the <a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan languages</a>, for which some evidence has shown that they are related to the <a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a> languages of Central America. In the 1970s, it was proposed that the <a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya languages</a> of Bolivia could be related to the <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan languages</a> of Mesoamerica, but while this proposal was initially accepted, <a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Campbell</a> argued very strongly against it.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_of_the_South_American_languages">Study of the South American languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Study of the South American languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first grammar of a South American language was that of <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechua_cl%C3%A1sico" class="extiw" title="es:Quechua clásico">classical Quechua</a> published by <a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Santo_Tom%C3%A1s" title="Domingo de Santo Tomás">Domingo de Santo Tomás</a> in 1560. The missionaries of the seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth centuries carried out an intense activity of data collection, grammar writing (usually called <i>language arts</i>), dictionaries, and catechisms, in order to <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelize</a> the indigenous populations. A good amount of linguistic records also appear in chronicles and official records. Much of the information from this period was summarized by <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Herv%C3%A1s_y_Panduro" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro">Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro</a> in his work <i>Idea dell'universo</i> (1778–87), and in the work by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christoph_Adelung" title="Johann Christoph Adelung">Johann Christoph Adelung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Severin_Vater" title="Johann Severin Vater">Johann Severin Vater</a> <i>Mithridates</i> (1806–17). Subsequently, most of the information collected first hand was compiled by ethnographers in the first half of the twentieth century. Despite the magnitude and fundamental nature of the works of this period, its technical quality is below that achieved in other parts of the world, which is why South America, along with <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, was one of the worst-known parts from a linguistic point of view. </p><p>Since the 1940s, the number of works about the languages of South America has grown significantly, carried out fundamentally by linguists and missionaries well trained in linguistics. However, there still exist many important gaps that affect the descriptive level, and few languages have been widely described. That has hurt comparative, historic, and typological work on the languages of South America. The descriptive work has had problems due to the shortage of linguists and the rapid extinction of many languages, often situated in remote and difficult to reach areas that require urgent study before they disappear completely. These languages produce scientific interest since their vocabulary reflects the traditional culture and contains important data about the fauna, flora, and local history of little-known regions. In addition, indigenous people have a right to bilingual education in some countries and for that education to be successful, it is important to rely on good descriptive material of indigenous languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urheimat_of_some_linguistic_families"><i>Urheimat</i> of some linguistic families</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Urheimat of some linguistic families"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For some of the main <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">linguistic families</a> of South America, homeland groups have been proposed, or <i><a href="/wiki/Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urheimat">Urheimats</a></i>, grouping them from where they originated. For example, it seems quite clear that <a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian languages</a> expanded from <a href="/wiki/Rond%C3%B4nia" title="Rondônia">Rondônia</a>, which is an area of greater diversification; in fact, almost all Tupian languages outside of Rondônia belong to only one branch of the nine branches that form the Tupian family. This principle that the original area of a linguistic family is usually also the most diversified has been questioned by some authors, although it is one of the main tools to propose an area of original expansion for most language families. Recently, the <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> relationship between <a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan languages</a>, Lencan languages, and Misumalpan languages has been demonstrated, which suggests that these languages originated in a region near the south of the Mesoamerican area and therefore, Chibchan languages will have expanded from the north to <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> and northeast of Colombia. Similarly, it is conjectured that the Caribbean languages would have expanded from east to west, and from there some groups moved to the eastern Amazon and others to the Caribbean islands, where they were expanding in the fifteenth century upon the arrival of the Europeans to America. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amazonrivermap.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Amazonrivermap.svg/330px-Amazonrivermap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Amazonrivermap.svg/495px-Amazonrivermap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Amazonrivermap.svg/660px-Amazonrivermap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">its drainage basin</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bcamazonica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bcamazonica.jpg/330px-Bcamazonica.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bcamazonica.jpg/495px-Bcamazonica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bcamazonica.jpg/660px-Bcamazonica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>Political map of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">its drainage basin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Jolkesky (2016) speculates that from around 2,200 B.C. to 1,800 B.C., the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a> had been occupied by a continuous chain of language families. They are listed below in order, beginning from the mouth of the Amazon River to the upper Amazon and Marañón Rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-Jolkesky-2016_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jolkesky-2016-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 821">: 821 </span></sup> </p> <ol><li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a> (from the <a href="/wiki/Xingu_River" title="Xingu River">Xingu</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tapaj%C3%B3s_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapajós River">Tapajós</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tapaj%C3%B3s_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapajós River">Tapajós</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Peba-Yagua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Peba-Yagua languages">Peba-Yagua</a> (<a href="/wiki/Madeira_River" title="Madeira River">Madeira</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a> (<a href="/wiki/Madeira_River" title="Madeira River">Madeira</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Puinave-Nadahup</a> (Lower <a href="/wiki/Madeira_River" title="Madeira River">Madeira River</a>)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaroan languages">Jivaroan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rio_Negro_(Amazon)" title="Rio Negro (Amazon)">Rio Negro</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomami</a> (along the Lower <a href="/wiki/Rio_Negro_(Amazon)" title="Rio Negro (Amazon)">Rio Negro</a>)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arawan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Purus_River" title="Purus River">Purus</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Harakmbut-Katukinan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakmbut-Katukinan languages">Harakmbut-Katukinan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tef%C3%A9_River" title="Tefé River">Tefé</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Bora-Muinane</a> (<a href="/wiki/Japur%C3%A1_River" title="Japurá River">Japurá</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juta%C3%AD_River" title="Jutaí River">Jutaí</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juru%C3%A1_River" title="Juruá River">Juruá</a> confluences)</li> <li>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Takanan</a> (<a href="/wiki/I%C3%A7%C3%A1_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Içá River">Içá</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juta%C3%AD_River" title="Jutaí River">Jutaí</a> confluences)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a> (upper <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a>)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Napo_River" title="Napo River">Napo</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ucayali_River" title="Ucayali River">Ucayali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mara%C3%B1%C3%B3n_River" title="Marañón River">Marañón</a> confluence)</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Huallaga_River" title="Huallaga River">Huallaga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mara%C3%B1%C3%B3n_River" title="Marañón River">Marañón</a> confluences)</li></ol> <p><i>Urheimat</i> of other language families:<sup id="cite_ref-Jolkesky-2016_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jolkesky-2016-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 821">: 821 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a>: Lower <a href="/wiki/Magdalena_River" title="Magdalena River">Magdalena River</a> Valley</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a>: <a href="/wiki/Orinoco_Delta" title="Orinoco Delta">Orinoco Delta</a></li> <li>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Duho_languages" title="Duho languages">Duho</a>: Upper <a href="/wiki/In%C3%ADrida_River" title="Inírida River">Inírida</a>, Upper <a href="/wiki/Vaup%C3%A9s_River" title="Vaupés River">Vaupés</a>, and Upper <a href="/wiki/Apaporis_River" title="Apaporis River">Apaporis</a> basins</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tukanoan</a>: Andean foothills and Upper <a href="/wiki/Caquet%C3%A1_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Caquetá River">Caquetá</a> basin</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a>: Ecuadorian Andes</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Mochica_language" title="Mochica language">Mochica</a>: <a href="/wiki/Daule_River" title="Daule River">Daule River</a> basin</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a>: Upper Santiago and <a href="/wiki/Upano_River" title="Upano River">Upano</a> basins</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Macro-Arawakan_languages" title="Macro-Arawakan languages">Macro-Arawakan</a>: Middle and Upper <a href="/wiki/Ucayali_River" title="Ucayali River">Ucayali</a> basins</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi-Shapra</a>: Upper <a href="/wiki/Huallaga_River" title="Huallaga River">Huallaga</a> basin in the Peruvian Highlands</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lake_Jun%C3%ADn" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Junín">Lake Junín</a> region</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Jaqi</a>: middle <a href="/wiki/Mantaro_River" title="Mantaro River">Mantaro</a> basin in the Peruvian Highlands</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a>: coast of southern Peru</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a>: sources of the <a href="/wiki/Urubamba_River" title="Urubamba River">Urubamba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apurimac_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Apurimac River">Apurimac</a> Rivers</li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a>: shores of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Titicaca" title="Lake Titicaca">Lake Titicaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tupian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Tupian">Proto-Tupian</a>: <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_River" title="Roosevelt River">Roosevelt</a> and Upper <a href="/wiki/Aripuan%C3%A3_River" title="Aripuanã River">Aripuanã</a> basins</li> <li>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a> : <a href="/wiki/Mato_Grosso" title="Mato Grosso">Mato Grosso</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Louren%C3%A7o_River_(Mato_Grosso)" title="São Lourenço River (Mato Grosso)">São Lourenço River</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Rio_das_Mortes" title="Rio das Mortes">Rio das Mortes</a></li> <li>Pre-Proto-<a href="/wiki/Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru languages">Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru</a>: <a href="/wiki/Pantanal" title="Pantanal">Pantanal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although some of the classifications are based on geographic, ethnographic, or cultural criteria, these methods are not valid from a linguistic point of view, even though on some occasions there are correlations between them and a genuine <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> relationship. The previous correlation is supported only in branches or subgroups, but within the more extensive and diversified linguistic families, the correlation between cultural similarity and linguistic relationship is notably reduced, becoming random and arbitrary. Although families like <a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban languages</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian languages</a> are formed by villages with typical cultures of the tropical jungle, there are villages that speak Tupian languages, like <a href="/wiki/Ach%C3%A9" title="Aché">Aché</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sirion%C3%B3_language" title="Sirionó language">Sirionó</a>, who have very different cultures from those of the tropical jungle. And equally, the villages of a homogeneous cultural area like the eastern slopes of the Andes in fact, belong to unrelated linguistic families. In the same manner, isolated languages, or less diversified families, tend to concentrate in marginal areas, while <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a>, that is a family of few languages not very diversified, occupies a very prominent place both from a historical and a demographic point of view. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problems_with_the_classification">Problems with the classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Problems with the classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The major part of the proper linguistic classification of the languages of South America has been done on the basis of vocabulary lists and some grammatical traits. That procedure, although it leads to the clear recognition of the top-level genetic groups, does not distinguish well between the coincidences and the lexical loans of the words retained from the common <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a>. Also the <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronology</a>, which is more criticizable to find relationships of higher levels, has been used extensively. Just recently the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> has been applied carefully and patiently to find relationships between the identifiable phylogenetic subgroups from a simple list of vocabulary. For that reason, the phylogenetic classifications of the languages of America are far from definitive, and the best of them, in the best of cases, are only an approximation of the real relationships. For that reason, many proposed families like <a href="/wiki/Macro-Arawakan_languages" title="Macro-Arawakan languages">Macro-Arawakan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Macro-Chibchan_languages" title="Macro-Chibchan languages">Macro-Chibchan</a> are questionable because evidence that exists in their favor is sporadic, debatable, and not very solid. </p><p>The number of dead languages with scarce records is also very high among the languages of South America. Those languages are frequently labeled as <a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">unclassified languages</a>, when in reality they are unclassifiable because the recorded material relies on unverifiable philological interpretations and extremely scarce data with which it is not possible to establish a relationship unequivocally, as is the case with living languages for which data can be collected in sufficient numbers to decide if they are related to other languages or are genuine <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolated languages</a>. </p><p>Another important difficulty is the multiplicity of names used for South American languages. Many times the names reflect orthographic conventions of different European languages (Spanish, Portuguese, English) or simply the whim of each author when referring to a language among the names of tribes, dialects, or groups related to that language. There are cases of fictional languages that appear in the classifications, when in fact it is an alternative denomination for another language; in other cases, it is not possible to decide if two different names represent two different languages or close dialects of the same language. And vice versa, sometimes the same name has been used to refer to unrelated languages; for example, the term "catuquina" can refer to a family of languages, to <a href="/wiki/Katukinan_languages" title="Katukinan languages">Katukinan language</a>, a particular language of the catuquina family, or another language of the <a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</a> family, even <a href="/wiki/Catuquinaru_language" title="Catuquinaru language">Catuquinarú language</a> seems to have been a group that spoke a <a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian language</a>. Similarly, the terms "<a href="/wiki/Tapuya_language_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Tapuya language (disambiguation)">tapuya</a>", a Tupian term for "enemy", has been applied to many unrelated languages. The lack of orthographic standardization and the multiplicity of names for the same language sometimes make it difficult to compare among classifications of different authors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Important_classifications">Important classifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Important classifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first well-founded classification that used proper linguistic data is that of the American anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Garrison_Brinton" title="Daniel Garrison Brinton">D. G. Brinton</a> (1891), which recognized 73 families on the basis of grammatical similarities and a brief list of vocabulary. In 1913, another anthropologist, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Francis_Chamberlain" title="Alexander Francis Chamberlain">Alexander Chamberlain</a>, published a very influential classification that for many years was considered as a basic reference, although that classification did not provide enough details about its foundation.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The classification of the French anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Rivet" title="Paul Rivet">Paul Rivet</a> (1924) far surpassed all previous ones, providing a large amount of linguistic data and evidence that had been unpublished until then; that classification recognized 77 families and was based on lexical similarities. The Czech American <a href="/wiki/%C4%8Cestm%C3%ADr_Loukotka" title="Čestmír Loukotka">Čestmír Loukotka</a> contributed two more classifications (1935, 1944). Along the lines of Rivet, the first one extended the number of families to 94, and the second revised the previous one and recognized 114 families. The largest number of families in Loukotka's classifications was due to the discovery of new languages, and because he separated some of the more uncertain groups in Rivet's classification into different families. Rivet and Loukotka worked together on a new classification (1952) that proposed 108 families.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During much of the second half of the 20th century, the reference classification was a later revision of Loukotka (1968) that set the number of families to 117.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other existing classifications are those of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> (1956), revised later (1987), <a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Morris Swadesh</a>'s (1964) and one by Jorge Suárez(1973). These propose a reduction in the number of subgroups and, at least the first two authors, accept the <a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Amerind</a> hypothesis; that ultimately all of the families of America (except <a href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Aleut_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Eskimo–Aleut languages">Eskimo-Aleut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a>) are related.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These classifications have been criticized by most Americanists, who prefer the more conservative and less certain classifications, even if they do include a large number of families. More recently, <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Kaufman" title="Terrence Kaufman">Terrence Kaufman</a> (1994) and <a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Lyle Campbell</a> (1997) have proposed their own classifications, the first one more in line with Greenberg and Swadesh ("mergers") and the second more in line with Loukotka ("splitters"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages_by_geographic_region">Languages by geographic region</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Languages by geographic region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas">Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_areas_of_the_Americas" title="Linguistic areas of the Americas">Linguistic areas of the Americas</a></div> <p>Below is a list of South American language families and isolates grouped by geographic region. The inventory of language families and isolates is partly based on Campbell (2012).<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell-SAmerica_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-SAmerica-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each region is higlighted in <b>bold</b>, while language isolates and individual languages are highlighted in <i>italics</i>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Je%E2%80%93Tupi%E2%80%93Carib_languages" title="Je–Tupi–Carib languages">Je–Tupi–Carib</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%AA_languages" title="Jê languages">Jê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabutian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabutian languages">Jabutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamak%C3%A3_languages" title="Kamakã languages">Kamakã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaj%C3%A1_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karajá languages">Karajá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krenakan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Krenakan languages">Krenakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxakalian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxakalian languages">Maxakalian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jaik%C3%B3_language" title="Jaikó language">Jaikó</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ofay%C3%A9_language" title="Ofayé language">Ofayé</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rikbakts%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Rikbaktsá language">Rikbaktsá</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></i> ?</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><b>Eastern Brazil</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karirian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karirian languages">Karirian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%ADan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Purían languages">Purían</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gamela_language" title="Gamela language">Gamela</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baenan_language" title="Baenan language">Baenan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katembri_language" title="Katembri language">Katembri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nat%C3%BA_language" title="Natú language">Natú</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pankarar%C3%BA_language" title="Pankararú language">Pankararú</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarairi%C3%BA_language" title="Tarairiú language">Tarairiú</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tux%C3%A1_language" title="Tuxá language">Tuxá</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wamo%C3%A9_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Wamoé language">Wamoé</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xok%C3%B3_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Xokó language">Xokó</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xukuruan_languages" title="Xukuruan languages">Xukurú</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yat%C3%A9_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaté language">Yaté</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ot%C3%AD_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Otí language">Otí</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_areas_of_the_Americas#Orinoco–Amazon" title="Linguistic areas of the Americas">Orinoco</a> (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Venezuela" title="Languages of Venezuela">Venezuela</a>)</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a> ? <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sap%C3%A9_language" title="Sapé language">Sapé</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a></i> (Jukude)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guamo_language" title="Guamo language">Guamo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomacoan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Otomacoan languages">Otomacoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duho_languages" title="Duho languages">Duho</a> ? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1liban_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sáliban languages">Sáliban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Betoi_language" title="Betoi language">Betoi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><b>Andes (Colombia and Venezuela)</b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Camsá language">Camsá</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Andaqu%C3%AD_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Andaquí language">Andaquí</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paezan_languages" title="Paezan languages">Paezan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</a></li></ul></li> <li><b>Amazon (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Colombia" title="Languages of Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japur%C3%A1_River" title="Japurá River">Japurá</a>–<a href="/wiki/Vaup%C3%A9s_River" title="Vaupés River">Vaupés</a> area)</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora–Witoto</a> ? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" title="Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b>Pacific coast (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Colombia" title="Languages of Colombia">Colombia</a> and Ecuador)</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chocoan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chocoan languages">Chocoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yurumangu%C3%AD_language" title="Yurumanguí language">Yurumanguí</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda_language" title="Esmeralda language">Esmeralda</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b>Pacific coast (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Peru" title="Languages of Peru">Peru</a>)</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sechura%E2%80%93Catacao_languages" title="Sechura–Catacao languages">Sechura–Catacao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</a> ? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ari%E2%80%93Puruh%C3%A1_languages" title="Cañari–Puruhá languages">Cañari–Puruhá</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mochica_language" title="Mochica language">Mochica</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><b>Amazon (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Peru" title="Languages of Peru">Peru</a>)</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pano%E2%80%93Tacanan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano–Tacanan languages">Pano–Tacanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaroan languages">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Candoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Candoshi language">Candoshi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omurano_language" title="Omurano language">Omurano</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Munichi_language" title="Munichi language">Munichi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Waorani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taushiro_language" title="Taushiro language">Taushiro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca_language" title="Tequiraca language">Tequiraca</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saparo%E2%80%93Yawan_languages" title="Saparo–Yawan languages">Saparo–Yawan</a> ? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yagua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Peba–Yagua languages">Peba–Yagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><b>Amazon (<a href="/wiki/Amazonas_State_(Brazil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazonas State (Brazil)">Amazonas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mato_Grosso" title="Mato Grosso">Mato Grosso</a>)</b> <ul><li>Arawan–Harákmbut–Katukinan ? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mura–Matanawí? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muran_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Muran languages">Muran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Matanaw%C3%AD_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Matanawí language">Matanawí</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mamor%C3%A9%E2%80%93Guapor%C3%A9_linguistic_area" title="Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area">Mamoré–Guaporé</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mure_language" title="Mure language">Mure</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bororoan_languages" title="Bororoan languages">Bororoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cayuvava_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cayuvava language">Cayuvava</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Canichana_language" title="Canichana language">Canichana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Mosetenan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kano%C3%AA_language" title="Kanoê language">Kanoê</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwazá</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><b>Andes (Peru, Bolivia, and Chile)</b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Culle_language" title="Culle language">Culle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quechumaran_languages" title="Quechumaran languages">Quechumaran</a> ? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Puquina_language" title="Puquina language">Puquina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun language">Mapudungun</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chaco_linguistic_area" title="Chaco linguistic area">Chaco</a>–Pampas</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mataco%E2%80%93Guaicuru_languages" title="Mataco–Guaicuru languages">Mataco–Guaicuru</a> ? <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guachi_language" title="Guachi language">Guachí</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Payagu%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Payaguá language">Payaguá</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascoyan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mascoyan languages">Mascoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huarpean_languages" title="Huarpean languages">Huarpean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilelan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Lule–Vilelan languages">Lule–Vilelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</a></li></ul></li> <li><b>Far South</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qawasqaran_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Qawasqaran languages">Qawasqaran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yaghan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaghan language">Yaghan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chono_language" title="Chono language">Chono</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistic_areas">Linguistic areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Linguistic areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_areas_of_the_Americas" title="Linguistic areas of the Americas">Linguistic areas of the Americas</a></div> <p>There are at least two large areas with clearly different characteristics separated by a transition zone; these are the <a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Andean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Amazonian_languages" title="Amazonian languages">Amazon</a> area. Although there are more frequent features in each of these areas, the two areas harbor a great linguistic diversity, the differences being basically in the frequency with which certain features appear in each of them. </p><p>Below are historical linguistic spheres of influence in South America as listed by Jolkesky (2016):<sup id="cite_ref-Jolkesky-2016_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jolkesky-2016-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 674">: 674 </span></sup> </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Sphere of interaction</th> <th>Dates </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caquet%C3%A1_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Caquetá River">Caquetá</a>-<a href="/wiki/Japur%C3%A1_River" title="Japurá River">Japurá</a></td> <td>1000 BC – 400 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caquet%C3%A1_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Caquetá River">Caquetá</a>-<a href="/wiki/Rio_Negro_(Amazon)" title="Rio Negro (Amazon)">Negro</a></td> <td>1 AD – 1700 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>circum-<a href="/wiki/Mara%C3%B1%C3%B3n_River" title="Marañón River">Marañón</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>1500 BC – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>circum-<a href="/wiki/Lake_Titicaca" title="Lake Titicaca">Titicaca</a></td> <td>1500 BC – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>Central Amazon</td> <td>2000 BC – 1700 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/San_Agust%C3%ADn_River" title="San Agustín River">San Agustín</a></td> <td>1 AD – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Upper_Amazon" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Amazon">Upper Amazon</a></td> <td>600 BC – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Amazon" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Amazon">Lower Amazon</a></td> <td>2000 BC – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lower/Middle <a href="/wiki/Paraguay_River" title="Paraguay River">Paraguay</a></td> <td>500 BC – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>Middle <a href="/wiki/Orinoco" title="Orinoco">Orinoco</a></td> <td>400 AD – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pantanal" title="Pantanal">Pantanal</a> of <a href="/wiki/Guapor%C3%A9_River" title="Guaporé River">Guaporé</a></td> <td>500 AD – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Central-West_Region,_Brazil" title="Central-West Region, Brazil">Central Brazil</a></td> <td>1500 BC – 1700 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ucayali_River" title="Ucayali River">Ucayali</a></td> <td>200 AD – 1600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>Central Andes</td> <td>1500 BC – 1500 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rio_Negro_(Amazon)" title="Rio Negro (Amazon)">Negro</a>-<a href="/wiki/Orinoco" title="Orinoco">Orinoco</a></td> <td>800 AD – 1700 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>nuclear/intermediate South American area</td> <td>1500 BC – 1500 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Putumayo_River" title="Putumayo River">Putumayo</a>-<a href="/wiki/Caquet%C3%A1_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Caquetá River">Caquetá</a></td> <td>1 AD – 1700 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>Central Trans-Andes</td> <td>500 BC – 600 AD </td></tr> <tr> <td>Southern Trans-Andes</td> <td>1500 BC – 1600 AD </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Language families in South America have had extensive contact with other over millennia. Jolkesky (2016) has found lexical parallels among the following language families, most of which are due to borrowing and contact rather than inheritance:<sup id="cite_ref-Jolkesky-2016_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jolkesky-2016-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language family</th> <th>Other language families with lexical parallels </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kanoe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanoe language">Kanoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Andaki_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Andaki language">Andaki</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Paez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Paez language">Paez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chibcha_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chibcha languages">Chibcha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tinigua-Pamigua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tinigua-Pamigua languages">Tinigua-Pamigua</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Andoke-Urekena_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Andoke-Urekena languages">Andoke-Urekena</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saliba-Hodi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Saliba-Hodi languages">Saliba-Hodi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tikuna-Yuri_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikuna-Yuri languages">Tikuna-Yuri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chapakura-Wa%C3%B1am_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapakura-Wañam languages">Chapakura-Wañam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mura-Matanawi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mura-Matanawi languages">Mura-Matanawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Kak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Kak languages">Puinave-Kak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bora-Muinane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bora-Muinane languages">Bora-Muinane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guahibo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Guahibo languages">Guahibo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harakmbet-Katukina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakmbet-Katukina languages">Harakmbet-Katukina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harakmbet_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakmbet languages">Harakmbet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaqi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaqi languages">Jaqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kawapana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawapana languages">Kawapana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kayuvava_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayuvava language">Kayuvava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru languages">Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mura-Matanawi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mura-Matanawi languages">Mura-Matanawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omurano_language" title="Omurano language">Omurano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano-Takana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano-Takana languages">Pano-Takana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Takana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Takana languages">Takana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Nadahup_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Nadahup languages">Puinave-Nadahup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witoto-Okaina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto-Okaina languages">Witoto-Okaina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaparo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaparo languages">Zaparo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saliba-Hodi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Saliba-Hodi languages">Saliba-Hodi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tikuna-Yuri_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikuna-Yuri languages">Tikuna-Yuri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sape_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sape language">Sape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tikuna-Yuri_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikuna-Yuri languages">Tikuna-Yuri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atakame_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Atakame language">Atakame</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Atakame_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Atakame language">Atakame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Paez language">Paez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umbra_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbra language">Umbra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chibcha_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chibcha languages">Chibcha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bora-Muinane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bora-Muinane languages">Bora-Muinane</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guahibo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Guahibo languages">Guahibo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witoto-Okaina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto-Okaina languages">Witoto-Okaina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bororo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bororo languages">Bororo</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guato_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Guato language">Guato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kayuvava_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayuvava language">Kayuvava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chapakura-Wa%C3%B1am_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapakura-Wañam languages">Chapakura-Wañam</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Kak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Kak languages">Puinave-Kak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chibcha_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chibcha languages">Chibcha</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andaki_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Andaki language">Andaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duho_languages" title="Duho languages">Duho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Paez language">Paez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sape_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sape language">Sape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guahibo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Guahibo languages">Guahibo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kamsa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamsa language">Kamsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Paez language">Paez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umbra_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbra language">Umbra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witoto-Okaina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto-Okaina languages">Witoto-Okaina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chibcha_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chibcha languages">Chibcha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bora-Muinane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bora-Muinane languages">Bora-Muinane</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandoshi language">Kandoshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muniche_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muniche language">Muniche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Duho_languages" title="Duho languages">Duho</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chibcha_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chibcha languages">Chibcha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guahibo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Guahibo languages">Guahibo</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Kak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Kak languages">Puinave-Kak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bora-Muinane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bora-Muinane languages">Bora-Muinane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guato_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Guato language">Guato</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bororo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bororo languages">Bororo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harakmbet_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakmbet languages">Harakmbet</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Nadahup_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Nadahup languages">Puinave-Nadahup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harakmbet-Katukina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakmbet-Katukina languages">Harakmbet-Katukina</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chapakura-Wa%C3%B1am_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapakura-Wañam languages">Chapakura-Wañam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jaqi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaqi languages">Jaqi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pukina_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pukina language">Pukina</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jeoromitxi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeoromitxi language">Jeoromitxi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mura-Matanawi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mura-Matanawi languages">Mura-Matanawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jirajara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jirajara languages">Jirajara</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sape_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sape language">Sape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timote-Kuika_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timote-Kuika languages">Timote-Kuika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Kak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Kak languages">Puinave-Kak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandoshi language">Kandoshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kamsa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamsa language">Kamsa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kandoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandoshi language">Kandoshi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kawapana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawapana languages">Kawapana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kanichana_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanichana language">Kanichana</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kanoe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanoe language">Kanoe</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Karaja_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaja languages">Karaja</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Nadahup_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Nadahup languages">Puinave-Nadahup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guato_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Guato language">Guato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kawapana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawapana languages">Kawapana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bororo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bororo languages">Bororo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeoromitxi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeoromitxi language">Jeoromitxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaja_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaja languages">Karaja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rikbaktsa_language" title="Rikbaktsa language">Rikbaktsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mura-Matanawi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mura-Matanawi languages">Mura-Matanawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Nadahup_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Nadahup languages">Puinave-Nadahup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kawapana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawapana languages">Kawapana</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandoshi language">Kandoshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pukina_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pukina language">Pukina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kayuvava_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayuvava language">Kayuvava</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bororo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bororo languages">Bororo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Takana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Takana languages">Takana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaparo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaparo languages">Zaparo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandoshi language">Kandoshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muniche_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muniche language">Muniche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pukina_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pukina language">Pukina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaqi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaqi languages">Jaqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kawapana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawapana languages">Kawapana</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kofan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kofan language">Kofan</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Paez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Paez language">Paez</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kulle_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulle language">Kulle</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandoshi language">Kandoshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaqi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaqi languages">Jaqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeoromitxi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeoromitxi language">Jeoromitxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mura-Matanawi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mura-Matanawi languages">Mura-Matanawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peba-Yagua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Peba-Yagua languages">Peba-Yagua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanoe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanoe language">Kanoe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kulle_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulle language">Kulle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omurano_language" title="Omurano language">Omurano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taushiro_language" title="Taushiro language">Taushiro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaqi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaqi languages">Jaqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru languages">Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ofaye_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ofaye language">Ofaye</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sape_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sape language">Sape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saliba-Hodi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Saliba-Hodi languages">Saliba-Hodi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tikuna-Yuri_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikuna-Yuri languages">Tikuna-Yuri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandoshi language">Kandoshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muniche_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muniche language">Muniche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanichana_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanichana language">Kanichana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Moseten-Tsimane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Moseten-Tsimane languages">Moseten-Tsimane</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yurakare_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yurakare language">Yurakare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Muniche_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Muniche language">Muniche</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholon-Hibito_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholon-Hibito languages">Cholon-Hibito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mura-Matanawi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mura-Matanawi languages">Mura-Matanawi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeoromitxi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeoromitxi language">Jeoromitxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guahibo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Guahibo languages">Guahibo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanoe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanoe language">Kanoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peba-Yagua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Peba-Yagua languages">Peba-Yagua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bororo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bororo languages">Bororo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ofaye_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ofaye language">Ofaye</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru languages">Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Omurano_language" title="Omurano language">Omurano</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaparo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaparo languages">Zaparo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Paez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Paez language">Paez</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chibcha_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chibcha languages">Chibcha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andaki_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Andaki language">Andaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kofan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kofan language">Kofan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moseten-Tsimane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Moseten-Tsimane languages">Moseten-Tsimane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harakmbet_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakmbet languages">Harakmbet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandoshi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandoshi language">Kandoshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pukina_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pukina language">Pukina</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pano-Takana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano-Takana languages">Pano-Takana</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Peba-Yagua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Peba-Yagua languages">Peba-Yagua</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaparo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaparo languages">Zaparo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nambikwara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nambikwara languages">Nambikwara</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pijao_language" title="Pijao language">Pijao</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Witoto-Okaina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto-Okaina languages">Witoto-Okaina</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Puinave-Kak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Kak languages">Puinave-Kak</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chapakura-Wa%C3%B1am_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapakura-Wañam languages">Chapakura-Wañam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guahibo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Guahibo languages">Guahibo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jirajara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jirajara languages">Jirajara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sape_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sape language">Sape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Puinave-Nadahup_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Nadahup languages">Puinave-Nadahup</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Harakmbet_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakmbet languages">Harakmbet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaja_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaja languages">Karaja</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pukina_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pukina language">Pukina</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jaqi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaqi languages">Jaqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kawapana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawapana languages">Kawapana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rikbaktsa_language" title="Rikbaktsa language">Rikbaktsa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saliba-Hodi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Saliba-Hodi languages">Saliba-Hodi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andoke-Urekena_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Andoke-Urekena languages">Andoke-Urekena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sape_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sape language">Sape</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chibcha_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chibcha languages">Chibcha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Kak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Kak languages">Puinave-Kak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jirajara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jirajara languages">Jirajara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Takana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Takana languages">Takana</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kayuvava_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayuvava language">Kayuvava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chibcha_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chibcha languages">Chibcha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeoromitxi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeoromitxi language">Jeoromitxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mura-Matanawi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mura-Matanawi languages">Mura-Matanawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Taushiro_language" title="Taushiro language">Taushiro</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tekiraka_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tekiraka language">Tekiraka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tekiraka_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tekiraka language">Tekiraka</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Taushiro_language" title="Taushiro language">Taushiro</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tikuna-Yuri_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikuna-Yuri languages">Tikuna-Yuri</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andoke-Urekena_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Andoke-Urekena languages">Andoke-Urekena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Timote-Kuika_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timote-Kuika languages">Timote-Kuika</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jirajara_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jirajara languages">Jirajara</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tinigua-Pamigua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tinigua-Pamigua languages">Tinigua-Pamigua</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andaki_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Andaki language">Andaki</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru languages">Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochika language">Mochika</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Paez language">Paez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sape_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sape language">Sape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witoto-Okaina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto-Okaina languages">Witoto-Okaina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saliba-Hodi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Saliba-Hodi languages">Saliba-Hodi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tikuna-Yuri_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikuna-Yuri languages">Tikuna-Yuri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bora-Muinane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bora-Muinane languages">Bora-Muinane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bora-Muinane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bora-Muinane languages">Bora-Muinane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guato_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Guato language">Guato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kayuvava_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayuvava language">Kayuvava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mura-Matanawi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mura-Matanawi languages">Mura-Matanawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harakmbet_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakmbet languages">Harakmbet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bororo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bororo languages">Bororo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaja_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaja languages">Karaja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru languages">Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Takana_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Takana languages">Takana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Kak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Kak languages">Puinave-Kak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Umbra_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbra language">Umbra</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Barbakoa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbakoa languages">Barbakoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omurano_language" title="Omurano language">Omurano</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Uru-Chipaya_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Uru-Chipaya languages">Uru-Chipaya</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pukina_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pukina language">Pukina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pano languages">Pano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaqi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaqi languages">Jaqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun languages">Mapudungun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moseten-Tsimane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Moseten-Tsimane languages">Moseten-Tsimane</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Waorani</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karib_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Karib languages">Karib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Máku language">Máku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sape_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sape language">Sape</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Witoto-Okaina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto-Okaina languages">Witoto-Okaina</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pijao_language" title="Pijao language">Pijao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bora-Muinane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bora-Muinane languages">Bora-Muinane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tukano_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukano languages">Tukano</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yanomami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanomami languages">Yanomami</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katukina-Katawixi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukina-Katawixi languages">Katukina-Katawixi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puinave-Kak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Puinave-Kak languages">Puinave-Kak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupi_languages" title="Tupi languages">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawa languages">Arawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guahibo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Guahibo languages">Guahibo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jivaro_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaro languages">Jivaro</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saliba-Hodi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Saliba-Hodi languages">Saliba-Hodi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bora-Muinane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bora-Muinane languages">Bora-Muinane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choko_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Choko languages">Choko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witoto-Okaina_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto-Okaina languages">Witoto-Okaina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Waorani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yurakare_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yurakare language">Yurakare</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Moseten-Tsimane_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Moseten-Tsimane languages">Moseten-Tsimane</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zaparo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaparo languages">Zaparo</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Omurano_language" title="Omurano language">Omurano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawak_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arawak languages">Arawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kechua languages">Kechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peba-Yagua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Peba-Yagua languages">Peba-Yagua</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistic_characteristics">Linguistic characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Linguistic characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The languages of South America are enormously diverse. There are no common characteristics to all of them since they belong to different linguistic families, and as a whole do not form a <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">linguistic area</a> where there has been convergence to certain common features. The more frequent common characteristics are similar to those found in the rest of the world, so there are no peculiarities of the languages of South America. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar">Grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As is the case worldwide, the majority of South American languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Andean languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora–Witoto languages</a>, predominantly use suffixes. It is also common to find <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative languages</a> that use many suffixes and a few prefixes, as is the case with <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</a> languages. Some language families use prefixes and suffixes, but only a few per word as in <a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a> (it has been proposed that these three families could form a <a href="/wiki/Je%E2%80%93Tupi%E2%80%93Carib_languages" title="Je–Tupi–Carib languages">Je-Tupi-Carib</a> superfamily). A few languages extensively use prefixes and even more suffixes, like <a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholon</a> languages. No languages have been found that use prefixes exclusively to mark grammatical relations. <a href="/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">Isolating languages</a>, which practically lack affixes, such as <a href="/wiki/Ona_language" title="Ona language">Shelknam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tehuelche_language" title="Tehuelche language">Tehuelche</a>, are quite rare in South America. </p><p>The morphological complexity of words varies enormously; in <a href="/wiki/Guarani_language" title="Guarani language">Guarani</a> (Tupian), the average is three morphemes, while in <a href="/wiki/Yine_language" title="Yine language">Piro</a> (Arawakan), it is six morphemes. In <a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a>, many words are formed by <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>, a procedure also used systematically in Tupian languages. The composition is very frequent, just like in the rest of the world, although it is a rare procedure in Chonan languages that are highly isolating. Nominal incorporation in the verb is also frequent in America. As for the classical morphological types, among the agglutinating languages, Quechua, Pano-Tacanan languages, or Mapuche are found. Cariban and Tupian languages are slightly <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">fusional</a>, and Chon languages are the clearest case of isolating languages. </p><p>Guaicuru languages (Mataco–Guaicuru) have a grammatical gender distinction in the noun, although other languages have special morphemes to differentiate masculine and feminine in the markings of a person of the verb (Arawakan, <a href="/wiki/Witoto_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Witoto languages">Witoto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a>). Languages without a <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> distinction are the most numerous, just like in the rest of the world. Regarding <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical number</a>, distinction between singular and plural is optional in the third person of many Cariban and Tupian languages, whereas <a href="/wiki/Mapuche" title="Mapuche">Mapuche</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yaghan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaghan language">Yaghan</a> obligatorily distinguish the singular from the <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a> and the plural. <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">Grammatical case</a> is usually indicated by suffixes or <a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">post-positions</a> more often than with prepositions. <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Nominal classifiers</a> that classify nouns according to the shape of the object or the way they appear naturally are frequent in Chibchan, Tucanoan, and <a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a> languages. It is also common in some languages (Guaicuru, Mataco, <a href="/wiki/Cocama_language" title="Cocama language">Cocama</a>) for some words to have different forms if the speaker is male or female. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a>, the distinction of <a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">clusivity</a> in the first person of the plural form is used frequently. It is also common to mark, in the third person, if the referent is present or absent, sitting or standing, and other distinct incidental similarities (<a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a>, Guaicuru). Possession is indicated by prefixes or suffixes. The systems that mark possession of the noun coincide with the markings of subject of the intransitive verbs quite frequently. </p><p>On the verb, it is common to mark both the person of the subject, the person of the object, and the negation within the same verbal form. <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">Grammatical aspect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">grammatical tense</a> are recorded in virtually all languages, although its realization varies greatly from one language to others: in <a href="/wiki/Aguaruna_language" title="Aguaruna language">Aguaruna</a>, there is a future verb form, along with three past verb forms that differ according to the relative distance in time, while Guarani differentiates future forms from non-future forms. Other languages, like Jébero, basically express the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">grammatical mood</a>, making the other verbal categories less important. It is also very common to use directionals or affixes that indicate movement with respect to the speaker, or the listener, or the location in the verbal action (Quechua, Záparo, Itonama). Other affixes that are given are "manners" of how the action is carried out (hitting, biting, walking, ...); these appear in Jébero or <a href="/wiki/Ticuna_language" title="Ticuna language">Ticuna</a>. Cariban languages also indicate whether an action was carried out collectively or individually. For the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_modifier" title="Grammatical modifier">grammatical modifier</a>, the use of equations is frequent, formed by the simple juxtaposition of subject, features that are common in many languages. This contrasts with European languages that frequently use <a href="/wiki/Linking_verb" title="Linking verb">linking verbs</a> in this type of predication. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonology">Phonology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As with grammar, there are no characteristics common to the languages of South America. There is a lot of variation in the number of <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>: in <a href="/wiki/Jaqaru_language" title="Jaqaru language">Jaqaru</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a>), 42 segmental phonemes are distinguished, while in <a href="/wiki/Campa_languages" title="Campa languages">Campa</a> (Arawakan), only 17 are distinguished. Jaqaru has 36 consonants, while Makusi (Cariban) has only 11. Some Quechua varieties have only three vowels, while Apinayé (Jê) has ten oral vowels and seven nasal vowels. </p><p>A dialect of Tucanoan distinguishes only three points of articulation, while <a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a> distinguishes nine points of articulation. The voiceless stops /p, t, k/ appear in virtually all languages, while the corresponding sounds /b, d, g/ are frequently absent, and fricatives like /f, v, z/ may most often be missing. Glottalized stops appear in Andean and Chibchan languages. Aspirated stops are used in Quechua and Aymaran languages, but in general they are rare. Also, <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalized</a> consonants as in the <a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave language</a> are not very frequent. A contrast between velars and post-velars is used in Quechua, Aymaran, and Chonan, while velars and labiovelars are contrasted in <a href="/wiki/Tacana_language" title="Tacana language">Tacana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siona_language" title="Siona language">Siona</a>. <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> consonants are somewhat rare, although they appear in Pano-Tacanan and Uru-Chipaya languages. </p><p>Vowel systems with nasal vowels are frequent (Macro-Jê and <a href="/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages">Saliban</a>), but in many languages nasality is not a property of the vowel; instead it is a suprasegmental phoneme of the word (Tupian and Yanomaman). Front rounded vowels (<span class="nowrap">⟨ö⟩</span> [ø], <span class="nowrap">⟨ü⟩</span> [y]) are virtually absent, although central vowels are common (<span class="nowrap">⟨ï⟩</span> [ɨ]), as are back unrounded vowels (<span class="nowrap">⟨ï⟩</span> [ɯ]). Long and short vowels are contrasted in the Cariban and Uru–Chipaya families. Glottalized vowels appear in Tikuna and the Chonan family. <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitch-accent_language" title="Pitch-accent language">pitch accent</a> are very common in South America. In any case, the tonal languages of South America have simple systems; the most complex systems are those of Acaricuara (three tones), Mundukurú (four tones), and Ticuna (five tones). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_languages">List of languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: List of languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_languages_of_South_America" title="List of indigenous languages of South America">List of indigenous languages of South America</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages_by_country">Languages by country</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Languages by country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Number_of_languages_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Number of languages by country">Number of languages by country</a></div> <p>Number of living indigenous languages by country as of 2012, as reported by Crevels (2012):<sup id="cite_ref-Crevels-SAmerica_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crevels-SAmerica-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th>Total population</th> <th>Indigenous population</th> <th>Indigenous languages </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td> <td>198,739,300</td> <td>358,000</td> <td>177 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a></td> <td>45,644,000</td> <td>1,392,600</td> <td>68 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a></td> <td>29,547,000</td> <td>4,045,700</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/23px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/35px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/45px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></td> <td>26,814,800</td> <td>536,900</td> <td>36 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/34px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="750" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a></td> <td>9,827,500</td> <td>4,541,000</td> <td>33 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg/23px-Flag_of_Paraguay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg/35px-Flag_of_Paraguay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg/46px-Flag_of_Paraguay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="660" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a></td> <td>6,995,700</td> <td>103,300</td> <td>18 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/35px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/46px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a></td> <td>40,913,600</td> <td>600,300</td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ecuador.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ecuador.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ecuador.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="960" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a></td> <td>14,573,100</td> <td>830,400</td> <td>13 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Guyana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Guyana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.svg/46px-Flag_of_Guyana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a></td> <td>772,300</td> <td>50,000</td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg/23px-Flag_of_Suriname.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg/35px-Flag_of_Suriname.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg/45px-Flag_of_Suriname.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a></td> <td>481,300</td> <td>7,000</td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a></td> <td>221,500</td> <td>5,000</td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a></td> <td>16,601,700</td> <td>692,200</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Total</th> <th>391,131,800</th> <th>13,162,400</th> <th>420 </th></tr></tbody></table> <p>See also: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous languages of Argentina">Indigenous languages of Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Bolivia" title="Languages of Bolivia">Indigenous languages of Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Brazil" title="Languages of Brazil">Indigenous languages of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Colombia" title="Languages of Colombia">Indigenous languages of Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Chile" title="Languages of Chile">Indigenous languages of Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ecuador" title="Languages of Ecuador">Indigenous languages of Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Paraguay" title="Languages of Paraguay">Indigenous languages of Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Peru" title="Languages of Peru">Indigenous languages of Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Venezuela" title="Languages of Venezuela">Indigenous languages of Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Guyana" title="Languages of Guyana">Indigenous languages of Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Suriname">Indigenous languages of Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of French Guiana">Indigenous languages of French Guiana</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_America" title="Languages of South America">Languages of South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_languages_of_South_America" title="List of indigenous languages of South America">List of indigenous languages of South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_languages" title="Amazonian languages">Amazonian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unclassified_languages_of_South_America" title="List of unclassified languages of South America">List of unclassified languages of South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_languages_of_South_America" title="List of extinct languages of South America">List of extinct languages of South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinct_languages_of_the_Mara%C3%B1%C3%B3n_River_basin" title="Extinct languages of the Marañón River basin">Extinct languages of the Marañón River basin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages of the Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas#South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas">Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples of South America">List of indigenous peoples of South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples_of_Brazil" title="List of indigenous peoples of Brazil">List of indigenous peoples of Brazil</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Handbook_of_South_American_Indians" title="Handbook of South American Indians">Handbook of South American Indians</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adelaar, Willem (2004). <i>The Languages of the Andes</i>. Cambridge University Press. <small><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36275-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36275-7">978-0-521-36275-7</a></small>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ALenguas+ind%C3%ADgenas+de+Am%C3%A9rica+del+Sur&rft.au=Adelaar%2C+Willem&rft.aulast=Adelaar%2C+Willem&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+the+Andes&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Campbell, Lyle. (1997). <i>American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509427-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509427-1">0-19-509427-1</a>.</li> <li>Dixon & Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald (eds.), <i>The Amazonian languages</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-57021-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-57021-2">0-521-57021-2</a>.</li> <li>Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). <i>Ethnologue: Languages of the world</i> (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55671-159-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-55671-159-X">1-55671-159-X</a>. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).</li> <li>Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987) <i>Language in the Americas</i>. Stanford University Press, CA.- <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1315-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1315-4">0-8047-1315-4</a></li> <li>Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), <i>Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages</i> (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-70414-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-70414-3">0-292-70414-3</a>.</li> <li>Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), <i>Atlas of the world's languages</i> (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.</li> <li>Key, Mary R. (1979). <i>The grouping of South American languages</i>. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.</li> <li>Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). <i>Classification of South American Indian languages</i>. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California.</li> <li>Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), <i>Handbook of South American Indians</i> (Vol. 6, pp. 157–317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichaelChousou-Polydouri2020" class="citation journal cs1">Michael, Lev; Chousou-Polydouri, Natalia (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~levmichael/pubs/michael_chousou-polydouri_SAm_phylo_to_appear.pdf">"Computational phylogenetics and the classification of South American languages"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i>. <b>13</b> (12). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Flnc3.12358">10.1111/lnc3.12358</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210985305">210985305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics+Compass&rft.atitle=Computational+phylogenetics+and+the+classification+of+South+American+languages&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=12&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Flnc3.12358&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A210985305%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Michael&rft.aufirst=Lev&rft.au=Chousou-Polydouri%2C+Natalia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.berkeley.edu%2F~levmichael%2Fpubs%2Fmichael_chousou-polydouri_SAm_phylo_to_appear.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). <i>Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América</i>. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.</li> <li>Poser, William J. (1992) The Salinan and Yurumanguí Data in <i>Language in the Americas</i>. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i> 58.2.202-22.PDF</li> <li>Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), <i>Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics</i> (pp. 10–26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Tax, Sol. (1960) "Aboriginal languages of Latin America"; <i>Current Anthropology</i> 1: 430-436.</li> <li>Tovar, Antonio, y Larrucea de Tovar, C.: <i>Catálogo de las Lenguas de América del Sur</i> (1986). <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Con clasificaciones</i></span>, indicaciones tipológicas, bibliografía y mapas. Ed. Gredos, Madrid. Col. Grandes Manuales.</li> <li>Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. <i>Languages of the world</i>, Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). <i>Anthropological Linguistics</i>, <i>7</i> (7): 121-150.</li> <li>Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). <i>Classification and index of the world's languages</i>. Amsterdam: Elsevier. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-00155-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-444-00155-7">0-444-00155-7</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexicons">Lexicons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lexicons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anonymous. (1928). Lenguas de América. Manuscripts de la Real Biblioteca. Vol. 1 (Catálogo de la Real Biblioteca, VI). Madrid.</li> <li>Crevels, M.; Muysken, P. (eds.). Lenguas de Bolivia. La Paz: Plural editores.</li> <li>de Matallana, B.; de Armellada, C. (1943). Exploración del Paragua. Boletín de la Sociedad Venezolana de ciencias naturales, 8:61-110.</li> <li>Farabee, W. C. (1922). Indian Tribes of Eastern Peru. (Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 10.). Massachusetts: Peabody Museum.</li> <li>González de Pérez, M. S.; Rodríguez de Montes, M. L. (eds.) (2000). Lenguas indígenas de Colombia: una visión descriptiva. Santafé de Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.</li> <li>Huber, R. Q.; Reed, R. B. (1992). Vocabulario Comparativo: Palabras Selectas de Lenguas Indígenas de Colombia. Santafé de Bogotá: SIL.</li> <li>Jahn, A. (1927). Los Aborígenes del Occidente de Venezuela: Su Historia, Etnografía y Afinidades Lingüísticos. Caracas: Lit. y Tip. del Comerio.</li> <li>Jijón Y Caamaño, J. (1945). Antropología prehispánica del Ecuador. Quito: La prensa catolica.</li> <li>Key, M. R.; Comrie, B. (eds.) (2015). The Intercontinental Dictionary Series. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.</li> <li>Koch-Grünberg, Th. (1928). Von Roraima zum Orinoco. Ergebnisse einer Reise in Nord-Brasilien und Venezuela in den Jahren 1911-1913. Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder.</li> <li>Landaburu, J. (ed.) (1996). Documentos sobre lenguas aborígenes de Colombia del archivo de Paul Rivet (4 volumes). Bogotá: Ediciones Uniandes/ CCELA/ COLCIENCIAS.</li> <li>Lehmann, W. (1920). Zentral-Amerika. Teil I. Die Sprachen Zentral-Amerikas in ihren Beziehungen zueinander sowie zu Süd-Amerika und Mexico. Berlin: Reimer.</li> <li>Loukotka, C. (1942). Klassifikation der Südamerikanischen Sprachen. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 74.1-6:1-69.</li> <li>Montaño Aragón, M. (1987): Guía Etnográfica Lingüística de Bolivia, La Paz: Editorial Don Bosco.</li> <li>Natterer, J. (n.d.) Collections of vocabularies. (Manuscript).</li> <li>Nies, J. (1976). Suplemento A: listas comparativas de palabras usuales en idiomas vernaculos de la selva (Datos Etno-Lingüísticos, 49). Lima: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</li> <li>Nimuendajú, K. (1925). As Tribus do Alto Madeira. Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 17:137-172.</li> <li>Nimuendajú, K. (1932a). Idiomas Indígenas del Brasil. Revista del Instituto de etnología de la Universidad nacional de Tucumán, 2:543-618.</li> <li>Nimuendajú, K. (1932b). Wortlisten aus Amazonien. Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris, 24:93-119.</li> <li>Nimuendajú, K.; Do Valle Bentes, E. H. (1923). Documents sur quelques langues peu connues de l'Amazone. Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 15:215-222.</li> <li>Payne, D. L. (1990). Some widespread grammatical forms in South American languages. In: D. L. Payne (ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages, 75-87. Austin: University of Texas Press.</li> <li>Torero, A. (2002). Idiomas de los Andes: Lingüística e Historia. Lima: Editorial Horizonte.</li> <li>Von Martius, C. F. Ph. (1867). Wörtersammlung Brasilianischer Sprachen. (Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens, II.) Leipzig: Friedrich Fleischer.</li> <li>Zevallos Quiñones, J. (1948). Primitivas Lenguas de la Costa. Revista del Museo Nacional de Lima, 17:114-119.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelaarMuysken2004" class="citation book cs1">Adelaar, Willem F. H.; Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). <i>The Languages of the Andes</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511486852">10.1017/cbo9780511486852</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511486852" title="Special:BookSources/9780511486852"><bdi>9780511486852</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+the+Andes&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511486852&rft.isbn=9780511486852&rft.aulast=Adelaar&rft.aufirst=Willem+F.+H.&rft.au=Muysken%2C+Pieter+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannss2008" class="citation book cs1">Hannss, Katja (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gdrqAsIFrPwC&q=the+Uru-Chipaya+languages+of+Bolivia+could+be+related+to+the+Mayan+languages+of+Mesoamerica%2C&pg=PA5"><i>Uchumataqu: The Lost Language of the Urus of Bolivia; a Grammatical Description of the Language as Documented Between 1894 and 1952</i></a>. CNWS Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789057891588" title="Special:BookSources/9789057891588"><bdi>9789057891588</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uchumataqu%3A+The+Lost+Language+of+the+Urus+of+Bolivia%3B+a+Grammatical+Description+of+the+Language+as+Documented+Between+1894+and+1952&rft.pub=CNWS+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9789057891588&rft.aulast=Hannss&rft.aufirst=Katja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgdrqAsIFrPwC%26q%3Dthe%2BUru-Chipaya%2Blanguages%2Bof%2BBolivia%2Bcould%2Bbe%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bthe%2BMayan%2Blanguages%2Bof%2BMesoamerica%252C%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jolkesky-2016-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jolkesky-2016_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jolkesky-2016_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jolkesky-2016_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jolkesky-2016_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etnolinguistica.org/tese:jolkesky-2016-arqueoecolinguistica">Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas</a></i>. Ph.D. dissertation, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bras%C3%ADlia" title="University of Brasília">University of Brasília</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlain1913" class="citation journal cs1">Chamberlain, Alexander F. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2092134">"Linguistic Stocks of South American Indians, with Distribution-Map"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>15</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">236–</span>247. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1913.15.2.02a00040">10.1525/aa.1913.15.2.02a00040</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1548-1433">1548-1433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Linguistic+Stocks+of+South+American+Indians%2C+with+Distribution-Map&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E236-%3C%2Fspan%3E247&rft.date=1913&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1913.15.2.02a00040&rft.issn=1548-1433&rft.aulast=Chamberlain&rft.aufirst=Alexander+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2092134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRivet,_Paul,_1876-1958,_author._Stresser-Péan,_Guy,_author._Loukotka,_Čestmír,_author." class="citation book cs1">Rivet, Paul, 1876-1958, author. Stresser-Péan, Guy, author. Loukotka, Čestmír, author. <i>Les langues du monde : extrait</i>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/886673904">886673904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+langues+du+monde+%3A+extrait.&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F886673904&rft.au=Rivet%2C+Paul%2C+1876-1958%2C+author.+Stresser-P%C3%A9an%2C+Guy%2C+author.+Loukotka%2C+%C4%8Cestm%C3%ADr%2C+author.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|last=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoukotka,_Čestmír.1968" class="citation book cs1">Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). <i>Classification of South American Indian languages</i>. Wilbert, Johannes. Los Angeles: Latin American Center, UCLA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0879031077" title="Special:BookSources/0879031077"><bdi>0879031077</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/241806007">241806007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classification+of+South+American+Indian+languages.&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Latin+American+Center%2C+UCLA&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F241806007&rft.isbn=0879031077&rft.au=Loukotka%2C+%C4%8Cestm%C3%ADr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg,_Joseph_H._(Joseph_Harold),_1915-2001.1987" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, Joseph H. (Joseph Harold), 1915-2001. (1987). <i>Language in the Americas</i>. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804713154" title="Special:BookSources/0804713154"><bdi>0804713154</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13794661">13794661</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+in+the+Americas&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13794661&rft.isbn=0804713154&rft.au=Greenberg%2C+Joseph+H.+%28Joseph+Harold%29%2C+1915-2001.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell-SAmerica-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Campbell-SAmerica_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Campbell, Lyle</a> (2012). "Classification of the indigenous languages of South America". In Grondona, Verónica; Campbell, Lyle (eds.). <i>The Indigenous Languages of South America</i>. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 2. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. <span class="nowrap">59–</span>166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025513-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025513-3"><bdi>978-3-11-025513-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classification+of+the+indigenous+languages+of+South+America&rft.btitle=The+Indigenous+Languages+of+South+America&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=The+World+of+Linguistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E166&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-11-025513-3&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jolkesky, M. & Eloranta, R. (2015). <i>The Marañón-Huallaga interaction zone: Contact beyond the northern Peruvian Andes</i>. REELA (Red Europea para el Estudio de las Lenguas Andinas) 4. Leiden, 6–7 September 2015, Universiteit Leiden.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crevels-SAmerica-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crevels-SAmerica_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrevels2012" class="citation book cs1">Crevels, Mily (2012). "Language endangerment in South America: The clock is ticking". In Grondona, Verónica; Campbell, Lyle (eds.). <i>The Indigenous Languages of South America</i>. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 2. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. <span class="nowrap">167–</span>234. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025513-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025513-3"><bdi>978-3-11-025513-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+endangerment+in+South+America%3A+The+clock+is+ticking&rft.btitle=The+Indigenous+Languages+of+South+America&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=The+World+of+Linguistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E234&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-11-025513-3&rft.aulast=Crevels&rft.aufirst=Mily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_South_America&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolai2006" class="citation web cs1">Nicolai, Renato (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geocities.ws/indiosbr_nicolai/menu.html">"Vocabulários e dicionários de línguas indígenas brasileiras"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vocabul%C3%A1rios+e+dicion%C3%A1rios+de+l%C3%ADnguas+ind%C3%ADgenas+brasileiras&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Nicolai&rft.aufirst=Renato&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeocities.ws%2Findiosbr_nicolai%2Fmenu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetrucci2007" class="citation web cs1">Petrucci, Victor A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oocities.org/indianlanguages_2000/index.html">"Línguas Indígenas"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%C3%ADnguas+Ind%C3%ADgenas&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Petrucci&rft.aufirst=Victor+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oocities.org%2Findianlanguages_2000%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+languages+of+South+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sails.clld.org/">South American Indigenous Language Structures</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~saphon/en/">SAPhon – South American Phonological Inventories</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://soundcomparisons.com/">Sound comparisons for various South American languages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://diacl.ht.lu.se/Language/Index">Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://japiim.linguasyanomami.com/">Portal Japiim</a> (dictionaries of various indigenous languages of Brazil)</li> <li>Aguilar Panchi, Evelyn Michelle, Saetbyul Lee, Evgenia Brodetsky, and Matthias Urban (eds.). 2022. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cinwa.org/">CINWA - Database of Cultivated plants and their names in the indigenous languages of South America</a></i>. Version 1.0.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Je%E2%80%93Tupi%E2%80%93Carib_languages" title="Je–Tupi–Carib languages">Je–Tupi–Carib</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></b></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Macro-Jê33" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%AA_languages" title="Jê languages">Jê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yabutian_languages" title="Yabutian languages">Jabutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamak%C3%A3_languages" title="Kamakã languages">Kamakã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaj%C3%A1_language" title="Karajá language">Karajá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krenak_languages" title="Krenak languages">Krenakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxakal%C3%ADan_languages" title="Maxakalían languages">Maxakalian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jaik%C3%B3_language" title="Jaikó language">Jaikó</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ofay%C3%A9_language" title="Ofayé language">Ofayé</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rikbaktsa_language" title="Rikbaktsa language">Rikbaktsá</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a></i></li> <li>? <i><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kariri_languages" title="Kariri languages">Karirian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purian_languages" title="Purian languages">Purían</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taruma_language" title="Taruma language">Taruma</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gamela_language" title="Gamela language">Gamela</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baenan_language" title="Baenan language">Baenan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katembri_language" title="Katembri language">Katembri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nat%C3%BA_language" title="Natú language">Natú</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pankarar%C3%BA_language" title="Pankararú language">Pankararú</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarairi%C3%BA_language" title="Tarairiú language">Tarairiú</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tux%C3%A1_language" title="Tuxá language">Tuxá</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huamo%C3%A9_language" title="Huamoé language">Wamoé</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xoc%C3%B3_language" title="Xocó language">Xokó</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xukuruan_languages" title="Xukuruan languages">Xukurú</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" title="Fulniô language">Yaté</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oti_language" title="Oti language">Otí</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_areas_of_the_Americas#Orinoco–Amazon" title="Linguistic areas of the Americas">Orinoco</a> (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Venezuela" title="Languages of Venezuela">Venezuela</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a></li> <li>? <a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arutani_language" title="Arutani language">Arutani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sap%C3%A9_language" title="Sapé language">Sapé</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maku_language_of_Auari" title="Maku language of Auari">Máku</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guamo_language" title="Guamo language">Guamo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Otomákoan languages">Otomacoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yaruro_language" title="Yaruro language">Yaruro</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="?_Duho25" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">? <a href="/wiki/Duho_languages" title="Duho languages">Duho</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1liban_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sáliban languages">Sáliban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Betoi_language" title="Betoi language">Betoi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Andes (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Colombia" title="Languages of Colombia">Colombia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Venezuela" title="Languages of Venezuela">Venezuela</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Camsá language">Camsá</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Andaqui_language" title="Andaqui language">Andaquí</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paezan_languages" title="Paezan languages">Paezan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_languages" title="Amazonian languages">Amazon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Colombia" title="Languages of Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japur%C3%A1_River" title="Japurá River">Japurá</a>–<a href="/wiki/Vaup%C3%A9s_River" title="Vaupés River">Vaupés</a> area)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a></b></li> <li>? <a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora–Witoto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" title="Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific coast (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Colombia" title="Languages of Colombia">Colombia</a> and Ecuador)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choco_languages" title="Choco languages">Chocoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yurumangu%C3%AD_language" title="Yurumanguí language">Yurumanguí</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda_language" title="Esmeralda language">Esmeralda</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific coast (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Peru" title="Languages of Peru">Peru</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sechura%E2%80%93Catacao_languages" title="Sechura–Catacao languages">Sechura–Catacao</a></li> <li>? <a href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ari%E2%80%93Puruh%C3%A1_languages" title="Cañari–Puruhá languages">Cañari–Puruhá</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mochica_language" title="Mochica language">Mochica</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_languages" title="Amazonian languages">Amazon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Peru" title="Languages of Peru">Peru</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano–Tacanan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicham_languages" title="Chicham languages">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omurano_language" title="Omurano language">Omurano</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Munichi_language" title="Munichi language">Munichi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Waorani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taushiro_language" title="Taushiro language">Taushiro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca_language" title="Tequiraca language">Tequiraca</a></i></li> <li>? <a href="/wiki/Saparo%E2%80%93Yawan_languages" title="Saparo–Yawan languages">Saparo–Yawan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" title="Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_languages" title="Amazonian languages">Amazon</a> (west-central Brazil)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>? <a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Arawan–Harákmbut–Katukinan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut_language" title="Harákmbut language">Harákmbut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katukinan_languages" title="Katukinan languages">Katukinan</a></li></ul></li> <li>? Mura–Matanawí <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mura_language" title="Mura language">Muran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Matanawi_language" title="Matanawi language">Matanawí</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mamor%C3%A9%E2%80%93Guapor%C3%A9_linguistic_area" title="Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area">Mamoré–Guaporé</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mure_language" title="Mure language">Mure</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bororoan_languages" title="Bororoan languages">Bororoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cayubaba_language" title="Cayubaba language">Cayubaba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Canichana_language" title="Canichana language">Canichana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Mosetenan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kano%C3%AA_language" title="Kanoê language">Kanoê</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwazá</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mato_Grosso_Ar%C3%A1ra_language" title="Mato Grosso Arára language">Arara</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Andes (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Peru" title="Languages of Peru">Peru</a>, Bolivia, and Chile)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Culle_language" title="Culle language">Culle</a></i></li> <li>? <a href="/wiki/Quechumaran_languages" title="Quechumaran languages">Quechumaran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Puquina_language" title="Puquina language">Puquina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_language" title="Mapuche language">Mapudungun</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chaco_linguistic_area" title="Chaco linguistic area">Chaco</a>–Pampas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>? <a href="/wiki/Mataco%E2%80%93Guaicuru_languages" title="Mataco–Guaicuru languages">Mataco–Guaicuru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guachi_language" title="Guachi language">Guachí</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Payagua_language" title="Payagua language">Payaguá</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascoian_languages" title="Mascoian languages">Mascoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huarpean_languages" title="Huarpean languages">Huarpean</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Allentiac_language" title="Allentiac language">Allentiac</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Millcayac_language" title="Millcayac language">Millcayac</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comechingon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Comechingon language">Comechingon</a></i> ?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilela_languages" title="Lule–Vilela languages">Lule–Vilelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Far South (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Chile" title="Languages of Chile">Chile</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" title="Alacalufan languages">Qawasqaran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yahgan_language" title="Yahgan language">Yaghan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chono_language" title="Chono language">Chono</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duho_languages" title="Duho languages">Duho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Andean_languages" title="Macro-Andean languages">Macro-Andean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Arawakan_languages" title="Macro-Arawakan languages">Macro-Arawakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Chibchan_languages" title="Macro-Chibchan languages">Macro-Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Jibaro_languages" title="Macro-Jibaro languages">Macro-Jibaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Macro-Otomákoan languages">Macro-Otomákoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Paesan_languages" title="Macro-Paesan languages">Macro-Paesan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Panoan_languages" title="Macro-Panoan languages">Macro-Panoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Puinavean_languages" title="Macro-Puinavean languages">Macro-Puinavean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Warpean_languages" title="Macro-Warpean languages">Macro-Warpean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora–Witoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda%E2%80%93Yaruroan_languages" title="Esmeralda–Yaruroan languages">Esmeralda–Yaruroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Je%E2%80%93Tupi%E2%80%93Carib_languages" title="Je–Tupi–Carib languages">Je–Tupi–Carib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" title="Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mataco%E2%80%93Guaicuru_languages" title="Mataco–Guaicuru languages">Mataco–Guaicuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya%E2%80%93Yunga%E2%80%93Chipayan_languages" title="Maya–Yunga–Chipayan languages">Maya–Yunga–Chipayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moseten%E2%80%93Chonan_languages" title="Moseten–Chonan languages">Moseten–Chonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quechumaran_languages" title="Quechumaran languages">Quechumaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saparo%E2%80%93Yawan_languages" title="Saparo–Yawan languages">Saparo–Yawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wamo%E2%80%93Chapakura_languages" title="Wamo–Chapakura languages">Wamo–Chapakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Amerind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_areas_of_the_Americas" title="Linguistic areas of the Americas">Linguistic areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaco_linguistic_area" title="Chaco linguistic area">Chaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamor%C3%A9%E2%80%93Guapor%C3%A9_linguistic_area" title="Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area">Mamoré–Guaporé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_languages" title="Amazonian languages">Amazonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Argentina" title="Languages of Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Bolivia" title="Languages of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Brazil" title="Languages of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Colombia" title="Languages of Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous languages of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ecuador" title="Languages of Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Paraguay" title="Languages of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Peru" title="Languages of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Venezuela" title="Languages of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Guyana" title="Languages of Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_languages_of_South_America" title="List of indigenous languages of South America">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_languages_of_South_America" title="List of extinct languages of South America">Extinct languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinct_languages_of_the_Mara%C3%B1%C3%B3n_River_basin" title="Extinct languages of the Marañón River basin">Marañón River basin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unclassified_languages_of_South_America" title="List of unclassified languages of South America">Unclassified languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas#South_America" class="mw-redirect" 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