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A vital nutrient for human health, β-carotene serves as a key focus in efforts to enhance the nutritional quality of sweetpotato. Identification and expression of carotenoid biosynthesis genes provide valuable insights into the genetic mechanisms underlying carotenoid accumulation and starch metabolism in sweetpotato storage roots. Through breeding, researchers can develop sweetpotato varieties with elevated β-carotene content, improving their nutritional value and health-promoting properties. Future directions in molecular breeding of carotenoids in sweetpotato will involve the integration of advanced genetic tools and technologies to accelerate trait improvement and meet the evolving nutritional needs of diverse populations. 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src="https://media.springernature.com/w72/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-031-65003-1?as=webp" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w144/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-031-65003-1?as=webp 2x" alt=""> </picture> <span class="app-article-masthead__journal-title ">The Sweetpotato Genome</span> </a> <span class="app-article-masthead__conference-info"></span> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> <div class="c-article-main u-container u-mt-24 u-mb-32 l-with-sidebar" id="main-content" data-component="article-container"> <main class="js-main-column u-serif c-chapter-body" data-track-component="chapter"> <div class="c-context-bar u-hide" data-test="context-bar" data-context-bar aria-hidden="true"> <div class="c-context-bar__container u-container" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-context-bar__title"> Molecular Breeding of Carotenoids in Sweetpotato </div> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both"> <a 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href="#Aff5">5</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-C__Robin-Buell" data-author-popup="auth-C__Robin-Buell">C. Robin Buell</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup> </li></ul> <div class="app-overview-section__separator app-overview-section__book-series"> <div class="app-book-series-listing"> <div> <svg class="app-book-series-listing__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use href="#icon-eds-i-book-series-medium"></use></svg> </div> <div> <p data-test="series-link"> <span class="app-book-series-listing__description">Part of the book series:</span> <a href="https://www.springer.com/series/11805" data-track="click" data-track-action="open book series" data-track-label="link">Compendium of Plant Genomes</a> ((CPG)) </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="app-overview-section__separator" data-test="article-metrics"> <div id="altmetric-container"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset" data-test="article-metrics"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>1415 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="chapter body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 id="Abs1" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number"> </span>Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>This chapter overviews molecular breeding efforts focused on enhancing carotenoid content in sweetpotato. Sweetpotato is a widely cultivated crop known for its adaptability to diverse climates and soil conditions, making it a staple food in many regions worldwide. Sweetpotato also offers notable nutritional and health benefits, owing to its rich content of essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Of particular interest is β-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, abundant in orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties. A vital nutrient for human health, β-carotene serves as a key focus in efforts to enhance the nutritional quality of sweetpotato. Identification and expression of carotenoid biosynthesis genes provide valuable insights into the genetic mechanisms underlying carotenoid accumulation and starch metabolism in sweetpotato storage roots. Through breeding, researchers can develop sweetpotato varieties with elevated β-carotene content, improving their nutritional value and health-promoting properties. Future directions in molecular breeding of carotenoids in sweetpotato will involve the integration of advanced genetic tools and technologies to accelerate trait improvement and meet the evolving nutritional needs of diverse populations. This, in combination with other tools such as gene editing, holds promise for enhancing β-carotene content in sweetpotato to address malnutrition and promote public health initiatives globally.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> <div class="note test-pdf-link" id="cobranding-and-download-availability-text"> <div class="c-article-access-provider" data-component="provided-by-box"> <p class="c-article-access-provider__text c-article-access-provider__text--chapter"> You have full access to this open access chapter,  <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-031-65003-1_8.pdf?pdf=inline%20link" class="c-pdf-download__link" id="js-body-chapter-download" style="display: inline; padding:0px!important;" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-track="content_download" data-track-context="article body" data-track-type="chapter PDF download" data-track-action="Pdf download" data-track-label="inline link" download>Download chapter PDF</a> <svg width="24" height="24" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="c-download-pdf-icon-large"> <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use> </svg> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="keywords">Keywords</h2><ul class="c-article-subject-list"><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Sweetpotato&facet-discipline="Life%20Sciences"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Sweetpotato</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Molecular%20breeding&facet-discipline="Life%20Sciences"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Molecular breeding</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Nutrition&facet-discipline="Life%20Sciences"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Nutrition</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Carotenoids&facet-discipline="Life%20Sciences"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Carotenoids</a></span></li></ul> <section data-title="Sweetpotato and Its Production"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 id="Sec1" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">8.1 </span>Sweetpotato and Its Production</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p><i>Ipomoea</i>, the largest genus in the Convolvulaceae family, encompasses 600–700 species, including <i>I. batatas</i> (L.) Lam. (sweetpotato), which is extensively cultivated worldwide as a food crop (Hirakawa et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Hirakawa H et al (2015) Survey of genome sequences in a wild sweet potato, Ipomoea trifida (H B K) G Don. DNA Res 22:171–179" href="#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e590">2015</a>; Austin et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Austin DF, Staples GW, Simão-Bianchini R (2015) A synopsis of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in the Americas: further corrections, changes, and additions. Taxon 64:625–633" href="#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e593">2015</a>). Sweetpotato ranks seventh globally among the most valuable food crops, following wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley, and cassava (CIP <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="CIP (2020) CIP annual report 2019 discovery to impact: science-based solutions for global challenges (pyrmont, Australia: CIP), p 9" href="#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e596">2020</a>; <a href="https://cipotato.org/sweetpotato/sweetpotato">https://cipotato.org/sweetpotato/sweetpotato</a>). Cultivated in over 115 countries, sweetpotato boasted an annual production of 91.8 million metric tons in 2022 (FAOSTAT <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="FAOSTAT (2022) Production; Cassava, sweet potato, yams, taro; world; 1961–2019 (Online) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Downloaded data" href="#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e607">2022</a>). Asia leads in sweetpotato production, accounting for 82 million tons (81.4%), primarily driven by China, followed by Africa with 17 million tons (15.2%) (FAOSTAT <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="FAOSTAT (2022) Production; Cassava, sweet potato, yams, taro; world; 1961–2019 (Online) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Downloaded data" href="#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e610">2022</a>). Notably in Africa, Malawi, Nigeria, United Republic of Tanzania, and Uganda rank among the top most sweetpotato producers after China (FAOSTAT <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="FAOSTAT (2022) Production; Cassava, sweet potato, yams, taro; world; 1961–2019 (Online) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Downloaded data" href="#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e613">2022</a>), highlighting its significance as a secondary staple food root crop, alongside cassava, and its substantial role in human diets (van Jaarsveld et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2005" title="van Jaarsveld PJ, Faber M, Tanumihardjo SA, Nestel P, Lombard CJ, Benadé AJS (2005) β-Carotene–rich orange-fleshed sweet potato improves the vitamin A status of primary school children assessed with the modified-relative-dose-response test. Am J Clin Nutr 81:1080–1087" href="#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e616">2005</a>; Low et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Low J, Lynam J, Lemaga B, Crissman C, Barker I, Thiele G, Namanda S, Wheatley C, Andrade M (2009) Sweetpotato in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Loebenstein G, Thottappilly G (eds) The sweetpotato. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 359–390" href="#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e619">2009</a>).</p><p>Because of its ability to thrive in nutrient-poor soils with minimal input, sweetpotato is cultivated across diverse agroecological and microclimatic zones, spanning from tropical to temperate climates (Niringiye et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Niringiye CS, Ssemakula GN, Namakula J, Kigozi CB, Alajo A, Mpembe I, Mwanga ROM (2014) Evaluation of promising sweet potato clones in selected agro ecological zones of Uga Time. J Agricult Veter Sci" href="#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e625">2014</a>). Sweetpotato plays multiple roles in the global food system, each of which carries significant implications for meeting food needs, alleviating poverty, and enhancing food security (Low et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Low JW, Mwanga ROM, Andrade M, Carey E, Ball A-M (2017) Tackling vitamin A deficiency with biofortified sweetpotato in sub-Saharan Africa. Global Food Sec 14:23–30" href="#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e631">2017</a>; El-Sheikha and Ray <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="El-Sheikha AF, Ray RC (2017) Potential impacts of bioprocessing of sweet potato: review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 57:455–471" href="#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e634">2017</a>). The roots of sweetpotato possess higher levels of carbohydrates, minerals, and protein compared to other tropical root and tuber crops (Ji et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Ji H, Zhang H, Li H, Li Y (2015) Analysis on the nutrition composition and antioxidant activity of different types of sweet potato cultivars. Food Nutr Sci 06:161–167" href="#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e637">2015</a>). While the protein content of sweetpotato, like most tropical root and tuber crops, is relatively low (around 2%), it surpasses that of cassava and plantain (Woolfe <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Woolfe JA (1992) Sweet potato an untapped food" href="#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e640">1992</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Nutritional and Health Benefits of Sweetpotato"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 id="Sec2" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">8.2 </span>Nutritional and Health Benefits of Sweetpotato</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>Sweetpotato roots are rich in secondary metabolites that offer significant nutritional benefits and exhibit remarkable sensory versatility, encompassing taste, texture, and flesh color. The flesh color of the roots range from white to cream, yellow, orange, and purple (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig1">8.1</a>). In sub-Saharan Africa, selective breeding efforts have resulted in the development of varieties characterized by storage roots with high dry matter (>25%) and varying flesh colors, including white, cream, and yellow. These varieties also boast higher starch content and a “mealy firm” texture upon cooking. Starch serves as the primary carbohydrate in sweetpotato storage roots, with the composition, size, and shape of starch granules playing pivotal roles in determining eating quality (Kitahara et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Kitahara K, Nakamura Y, Otani M, Hamada T, Nakayachi O, Takahata Y (2017) Carbohydrate components in sweetpotato storage roots: their diversities and genetic improvement. Breed Sci 67:62–72" href="#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e661">2017</a>; Reeve <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1967" title="Reeve RM (1967) A review of cellular structure, starch, and texture qualities of processed potatoes. Econ Bot 21:294–308" href="#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e664">1967</a>; Lv et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Lv Z, Yu K, Jin S, Ke W, Fei C, Cui P, Lu G (2019) Starch granules size distribution of sweet potato and their relationship with quality of dried and fried products. Starke 12:1800175" href="#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e667">2019</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 8.1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 8.1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-65003-1_8/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-031-65003-1_8/MediaObjects/522360_1_En_8_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-031-65003-1_8/MediaObjects/522360_1_En_8_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="355"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Sweetpotato flesh color range from white to yellow, orange, and purple. Photo Credit: Mercy Kitavi, 2019</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-65003-1_8/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div> <p>Sweetpotato cultivars featuring orange flesh color (referred to as orange fleshed; OFSP) are renowned for their rich content of non-digestible dietary fiber, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants (Neela and Fanta <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Neela S, Fanta SW (2019) Review on nutritional composition of orange-fleshed sweet potato its role in management of vitamin A deficiency. Food Sci Nutr 7:1920–1945" href="#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e699">2019</a>; Dako et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Dako E, Retta N, Desse G (2016) Comparison of three sweet potato (I. batatas (L.) Lam) varieties on nutritional and anti-nutritional factors. Global J Sci Front Res D Agricult Veter 16:1–11" href="#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e702">2016</a>). Notably, they exhibit high levels of β-carotene but relatively low dry matter content (18–25%). These varieties are typically characterized by a sweet flavor and moist texture post-cooking, making them a popular choice commercially, particularly in the USA (Islam et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Islam SN, Nusrat T, Begum P, Ahsan M (2016) Carotenoids and β-carotene in orange fleshed sweet potato: a possible solution to vitamin A deficiency. Food Chem 199:628–631" href="#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e705">2016</a>; Grace et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Grace MH, Yousef GG, Gustafson SJ, Truong V-D, Yencho GC, Lila MA (2014) Phytochemical changes in phenolics, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, and carotenoids associated with sweetpotato storage and impacts on bioactive properties. Food Chem 145:717–724" href="#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e708">2014</a>; Liao et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Liao Z, Chen M, Yang Y, Yang C, Fu Y, Zhang Q, Wang Q (2008) A new isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase gene from sweet potato: cloning, characterization color complementation. Biologia 63:221–226" href="#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e711">2008</a>).</p><p>Purple-fleshed sweetpotatoes, known for their abundance of anthocyanins, are a specialty variety particularly popular in Asia. These sweetpotatoes display an appealing purple-red hue and are characterized by high levels of anthocyanins, total phenols, and antioxidant activity (Steed and Truong <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Steed LE, Truong V-D (2008) Anthocyanin content, antioxidant activity, and selected physical properties of flowable purple-fleshed sweetpotato purees. J Food Sci 73:S215–S221" href="#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e725">2008</a>; Yoshinaga et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1999" title="Yoshinaga M, Yamakawa O, Nakatani M (1999) Genotypic diversity of anthocyanin content composition in purple-fleshed sweet potato (I. batatas (L.) Lam). Breed Sci 49:43–47" href="#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e728">1999</a>). Across different sweetpotato varieties, at least 27 anthocyanin pigments have been identified (He et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="He W, Zeng M, Chen J, Jiao Y, Niu F, Tao G, Zhang S, Qin F, He Z (2016) Identification and quantitation of anthocyanins in purple-fleshed sweet potatoes cultivated in China by UPLC-PDA and UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. J Agric Food Chem 64:171–177" href="#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e736">2016</a>; Wang et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Wang A, Li R, Ren L, Gao X, Zhang Y, Ma Z, Ma D, Luo Y (2018) A comparative metabolomics study of flavonoids in sweet potato with different flesh colors (I. batatas (L.) Lam). Food Chem 260:124–134" href="#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e739">2018</a>; Lee et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Lee MJ, Park JS, Choi DS, Jung MY (2013) Characterization and quantitation of anthocyanins in purple-fleshed sweet potatoes cultivated in Korea by HPLC-DAD and HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS. J Agric Food Chem 61:3148–3158" href="#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e742">2013</a>). Compared to orange-fleshed sweetpotatoes, purple-fleshed varieties exhibit significantly higher anthocyanin content (Kurnianingsih et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Kurnianingsih N, Ratnawati R, Nazwar TA, Ali M, Fatchiyah F (2020) A comparative study on nutritional value of purple sweet potatoes from West Java and Central Java. Indonesia. J Phys Conf Ser 1665:012011" href="#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e749">2020</a>), akin to other anthocyanin-rich crops such as blueberries, blackberries, cranberries, and grapes (Bridgers et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Bridgers EN, Chinn MS, Truong V-D (2010) Extraction of anthocyanins from industrial purple-fleshed sweetpotatoes and enzymatic hydrolysis of residues for fermentable sugars. Ind Crops Prod 32:613–620" href="#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e757">2010</a>). Furthermore, purple sweetpotatoes serve as an economical source of natural anthocyanin pigments (Jansen and Flamme <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Jansen G, Flamme W (2006) Coloured potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.): anthocyanin content and tuber quality. Genet Resour Crop Evol 53:1321–1331" href="#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e764">2006</a>). The anthocyanins present in purple-fleshed sweetpotatoes encompass various chemical structures, primarily cyanidins and peonidins; these acylated forms offer heat and light stability properties alongside antioxidant activity (Mu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Mu J, Xu J, Wang L, Chen C, Chen P (2021) Anti-inflammatory effects of purple sweet potato anthocyanin extract in DSS-induced colitis: modulation of commensal bacteria attenuated bacterial intestinal infection. Food Funct 12:11503–11514" href="#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e771">2021</a>), making them desirable natural pigments for food additives (Odake et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Odake K, Hatanaka A, Kajiwara T, Muroi T, Nishiyama K, Yamakawa O, Terahara N, Yamaguchi M (1994) Evaluation method and breeding of purple sweet potato “YAMAGAWA MURASAKI” (I. batatas POIR) for raw material of food colorants. Nippon Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkaishi 41:287–293" href="#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e774">1994</a>; Xu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Xu, J, Su, X, Lim, S, Griffin, J, Carey, E, Katz, B, Tomich, J, Smith, JS, Wang, W (2015) Characterisation and stability of anthocyanins in purple-fleshed sweet potato. P40 Food Chem 186:90–96" href="#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e778">2015</a>). Additionally, purple-fleshed sweetpotato varieties exhibit higher dry matter content (up to 38.96%) compared to OFSP, with a negative correlation observed between anthocyanin levels and water content (Steed and Truong <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Steed LE, Truong V-D (2008) Anthocyanin content, antioxidant activity, and selected physical properties of flowable purple-fleshed sweetpotato purees. J Food Sci 73:S215–S221" href="#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e785">2008</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="β-Carotene is an Important Vitamin a Source for Humans"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec3-section"><h2 id="Sec3" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">8.3 </span>β-Carotene is an Important Vitamin a Source for Humans</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec3-content"><p>Carotenoids play diverse roles in human health, ranging from acting as antioxidants to supporting vision and immune function (Eggersdorfer and Wyss <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Eggersdorfer M, Wyss A (2018) Carotenoids in human nutrition and health. Arch Biochem Biophys 652:18–26" href="#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e796">2018</a>). Dietary compounds with vitamin A activity encompass both preformed all-trans-retinol (referred to here as retinol for simplicity) and retinyl esters, along with provitamin A carotenoids like β-carotene or β-cryptoxanthin (Fraser and Bramley <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Fraser PD, Bramley PM (2004) The biosynthesis and nutritional uses of carotenoids. Prog Lipid Res 43:228–265" href="#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e803">2004</a>; Krinsky and Johnson <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2005" title="Krinsky NI, Johnson EJ (2005) Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Mol Aspects Med 26:459–516" href="#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e806">2005</a>; von Lintig <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="von Lintig J (2012) Provitamin A metabolism and functions in mammalian biology. Am J Clin Nutr 96:1234S-S1244" href="#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e809">2012</a>; Scott and Ewell <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Scott GJ, Ewell PT (1992) Sweetpotato in African food systems. Product Develop Root Tuber Crops 3:91–103" href="#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e813">1992</a>). Apart from certain aphids that naturally produce the carotenoid torulene (Moran and Jarvik <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Moran NA, Jarvik T (2010) Lateral transfer of genes from fungi underlies carotenoid production in aphids. Science 328:624–627" href="#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e816">2010</a>), animals lack the ability to synthesize these essential nutritional molecules de novo and therefore depend on dietary sources of this vital vitamin (Goodwin <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1984" title="Goodwin TW (1984) The biochemistry of the carotenoids. Springer, Netherlands" href="#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e819">1984</a>).</p><p>The primary precursors of vitamin A (VA) in the human body include β-carotene, α-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin (Arscott and Tanumihardjo <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Arscott SA, Tanumihardjo SA (2010) Carrots of many colors provide basic nutrition and bioavailable phytochemicals acting as a functional food. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 9:223–239" href="#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e829">2010</a>). The β-carotene (BC) found in OFSP plays a significant role as a long-term food-based strategy for combating vitamin A deficiency, as evidenced by recent studies in Africa (Low et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Low JW, Mwanga ROM, Andrade M, Carey E, Ball A-M (2017) Tackling vitamin A deficiency with biofortified sweetpotato in sub-Saharan Africa. Global Food Sec 14:23–30" href="#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e836">2017</a>; World Food Prize Foundation <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="World Food Prize Foundation (2016) 
 https://www.worldfoodprize.org/index.cfm/87428/40771/2016_world_food_prize_presented_to_four_international_researchers
 
 " href="#ref-CR93" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e839">2016</a>). Dietary carotenoids such as α-carotene and β-carotene have beneficial effects on human health, including antioxidant activity, supporting immune function, and reducing the risk of chronic diseases (Eggersdorfer and Wyss <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Eggersdorfer M, Wyss A (2018) Carotenoids in human nutrition and health. Arch Biochem Biophys 652:18–26" href="#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e843">2018</a>; Fiedor and Burda <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Fiedor J, Burda K (2014) Potential role of carotenoids as antioxidants in human health and disease. Nutrients 6:466–488" href="#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e846">2014</a>). Furthermore, lutein and zeaxanthin, both carotenoids, serve as macular pigments that aid in protecting the eyes and reducing the risk of age-related macular degeneration and cataracts (Sauer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Sauer L, Li B, Bernstein PS (2019) Ocular carotenoid status in health and disease. Annu Rev Nutr 39:95–120" href="#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e849">2019</a>). Many OFSP varieties contain up to 276.98 μg of β-carotene per gram of fresh weight (Low et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Low JW, Arimond M, Osman N, Cunguara B, Zano F, Tschirley D (2007) A food-based approach introducing orange-fleshed sweet potatoes increased vitamin A intake and serum retinol concentrations in young children in rural Mozambique. J Nutr 137:1320–1327" href="#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e852">2007</a>; Kang et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Kang L, Park S-C, Ji CY, Kim HS, Lee H-S, Kwak S-S (2017) Metabolic engineering of carotenoids in transgenic sweetpotato. Breed Sci 67:27–34" href="#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e855">2017</a>; Grune et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Grune T, Lietz G, Palou A, Ross AC, Stahl W, Tang G, Thurnham D, Yin S-A, Biesalski HK (2010) Beta-carotene is an important vitamin A source for humans. J Nutr 140:2268S-2285S" href="#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e858">2010</a>). Utilizing OFSP can help improve vitamin A status and enhance the bioavailability of various micronutrients such as iron, zinc, calcium, and magnesium, thereby reducing the risk of vitamin A deficiency (Islam et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Islam SN, Nusrat T, Begum P, Ahsan M (2016) Carotenoids and β-carotene in orange fleshed sweet potato: a possible solution to vitamin A deficiency. Food Chem 199:628–631" href="#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e870">2016</a>; Vimala et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Vimala B, Nambisan B, Hariprakash B (2011) Retention of carotenoids in orange-fleshed sweet potato during processing. J Food Sci Technol 48:520–524" href="#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e873">2011</a>; Gurmu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Gurmu F, Hussein S, Laing M (2014) The potential of orange-fleshed sweet potato to prevent vitamin A deficiency in Africa. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 84:65–78" href="#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e876">2014</a>). Moreover, β-carotene, as the provitamin A carotenoid with antioxidant properties and the highest vitamin A activity, has been associated with boosting the immune system and reducing the risk of cancer (Fiedor and Burda <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Fiedor J, Burda K (2014) Potential role of carotenoids as antioxidants in human health and disease. Nutrients 6:466–488" href="#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e884">2014</a>).</p><p>In many developing nations, sweetpotato serves as a secondary staple food, bridging nutritional gaps and bolstering the intake of essential vitamins and minerals, particularly in combating vitamin A deficiency among children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers (Han et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Han X, Ding S, Lu J, Li Y (2022) Global, regional, and national burdens of common micronutrient deficiencies from 1990 to 2019: a secondary trend analysis based on the global burden of disease 2019 study. eClinicalMedicine 44:11542" href="#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e894">2022</a>; Low and Thiele <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Low JW, Thiele G (2020) Understanding innovation: the development and scaling of orange-fleshed sweetpotato in major African food systems. Agric Syst 179:102770" href="#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e897">2020</a>). Orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties, rich in β-carotene, have proven successful in providing provitamin A biofortification in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Low et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Low J, Lynam J, Lemaga B, Crissman C, Barker I, Thiele G, Namanda S, Wheatley C, Andrade M (2009) Sweetpotato in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Loebenstein G, Thottappilly G (eds) The sweetpotato. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 359–390" href="#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e900">2009</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Low JW, Mwanga ROM, Andrade M, Carey E, Ball A-M (2017) Tackling vitamin A deficiency with biofortified sweetpotato in sub-Saharan Africa. Global Food Sec 14:23–30" href="#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e903">2017</a>; Neela and Fanta <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Neela S, Fanta SW (2019) Review on nutritional composition of orange-fleshed sweet potato its role in management of vitamin A deficiency. Food Sci Nutr 7:1920–1945" href="#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e907">2019</a>). However, sweetpotato cultivation in SSA has traditionally centered on varieties preferred for their high starch content, such as white and yellow-fleshed types, which, despite their high dry matter content, offer lower nutritional value (Low et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Low JW, Mwanga ROM, Andrade M, Carey E, Ball A-M (2017) Tackling vitamin A deficiency with biofortified sweetpotato in sub-Saharan Africa. Global Food Sec 14:23–30" href="#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e910">2017</a>). These varieties have been specifically chosen for their elevated starch levels. Moreover, local consumers favor starchy sweetpotato varieties for their distinct textural attributes after cooking (Jenkins et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Jenkins M, Shanks CB, Brouwer R, Houghtaling B (2018) Factors affecting farmers’ willingness and ability to adopt and retain vitamin A-rich varieties of orange-fleshed sweet potato in Mozambique. Food Sec 10:1501–1519" href="#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e913">2018</a>), influenced by factors like texture and sweetness, which are contingent on the composition and quantity of carbohydrates, including cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, starch, and sugars (Reeve <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1967" title="Reeve RM (1967) A review of cellular structure, starch, and texture qualities of processed potatoes. Econ Bot 21:294–308" href="#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e916">1967</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in Higher Plants"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec4-section"><h2 id="Sec4" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">8.4 </span>Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in Higher Plants</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec4-content"><p>Carotenoids are tetraterpene pigments that derive their name from the carrot (<i>Daucus carota</i>), a plant renowned for accumulating high levels of these pigments in its roots. While carotenoids commonly impart color to flowers, fruits, and seeds in plants (Hirschberg <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Hirschberg J (2001) Carotenoid biosynthesis in flowering plants. Curr Opin Plant Biol 4:210–218" href="#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e930">2001</a>), their accumulation in underground organs like tubers and roots represents an exception. Primarily, carotenoids serve in light-harvesting processes by safeguarding the plant’s photosynthetic machinery against photo-oxidative damage (Zakar et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Zakar T, Laczko-Dobos H, Toth TN, Gombos Z (2016) Carotenoids assist in cyanobacterial photosystem II assembly and function. Front Plant Sci 7:295" href="#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e933">2016</a>). Nature consists of hundreds of carotenoid structures, broadly classified into carotenes (hydrocarbons capable of cyclization at one or both ends of the molecule) and xanthophylls (oxygenated derivatives of carotenes) (Ruiz-Sola and Rodríguez-Concepción <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Ruiz-Sola MÁ, Rodríguez-Concepción M (2012) Carotenoid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis: a colorful pathway Arabidopsis. Book 10:e0158" href="#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e936">2012</a>). Carotenes, predominantly β-carotene, abound in the photosystem reaction centers, while xanthophylls are most prevalent in the light-harvesting complexes, (Davison et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Davison PA, Hunter CN, Horton P (2002) Overexpression of β-carotene hydroxylase enhances stress tolerance in Arabidopsis. Nature 418:203–206" href="#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e939">2002</a>; Pogson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Pogson BJ, Niyogi KK, Björkman O, DellaPenna D (1998) Altered xanthophyll compositions adversely affect chlorophyll accumulation and nonphotochemical quenching in Arabidopsis mutants. Proceed Natl Acad Sci 95:13324–13329" href="#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e943">1998</a>).</p><p>The carotenoid biosynthetic pathway (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig2">8.2</a>a) has been extensively elucidated in numerous plant species, including Arabidopsis (<i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i>) (Ruiz-Sola and Rodríguez-Concepción <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Ruiz-Sola MÁ, Rodríguez-Concepción M (2012) Carotenoid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis: a colorful pathway Arabidopsis. Book 10:e0158" href="#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e955">2012</a>), tomato (<i>Solanum lycopersicum</i>) (Bramley <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Bramley PM (2002) Regulation of carotenoid formation during tomato fruit ripening and development. J Exp Bot 53:2107–2113" href="#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e961">2002</a>), maize (<i>Zea mays</i>) (Vallabhaneni and Wurtzel <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Vallabhaneni R, Wurtzel ET (2009) Timing biosynthetic potential for carotenoid accumulation in genetically diverse germplasm of maize. Plant Physiol 150:562–572" href="#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e968">2009</a>), and rice (<i>Oryza sativa</i>) (Beyer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Beyer P, Al-Babili S, Ye X, Lucca P, Schaub P, Welsch R, Potrykus I (2002) Golden rice: introducing the β-carotene biosynthesis pathway into rice endosperm by genetic engineering to defeat vitamin A deficiency. J Nutr 132:506S-510S" href="#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e974">2002</a>). Carotenoids in higher plants are synthesized through the condensation of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) from the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway into phytoene (Auldridge et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Auldridge ME, Block A, Vogel JT, Dabney-Smith C, Mila I, Bouzayen M, Magallanes-Lundback M, DellaPenna D, McCarty DR, Klee HJ (2006) Characterization of three members of the Arabidopsis carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase family demonstrates the divergent roles of this multifunctional enzyme family. Plant J 45:982–993" href="#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e977">2006</a>). This initial committed step, catalyzed by the enzyme phytoene synthase (PSY), is considered the principal bottleneck in the carotenoid pathway (Cazzonelli and Pogson <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Cazzonelli CI, Pogson BJ (2010) Source to sink: regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Trends Plant Sci 15:266–274" href="#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e980">2010</a>; Sandmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Sandmann G, Römer S, Fraser PD (2006) Understanding carotenoid metabolism as a necessity for genetic engineering of crop plants. Metab Eng 8:291–302" href="#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e984">2006</a>). Subsequently, through desaturation and isomerization processes involving enzymes like phytoene desaturase (PDS), 15-cis-ζ-carotene isomerase (Z-ISO), ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS), and carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO), the plant carotenoid backbone is synthesized (Britton <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Britton G (1995) Structure and properties of carotenoids in relation to function. FASEB J 9:1551–1558" href="#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e987">1995</a>), ultimately leading to the formation of the linear carotenoid lycopene, which imparts a red color (Burton and Ingold <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1984" title="Burton GW, Ingold KU (1984) Beta-Carotene: an unusual type of lipid antioxidant. Science 224:569–573" href="#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e990">1984</a>; Ruiz-Sola and Rodríguez-Concepción <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Ruiz-Sola MÁ, Rodríguez-Concepción M (2012) Carotenoid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis: a colorful pathway Arabidopsis. Book 10:e0158" href="#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e993">2012</a>). The first divergence in the pathway occurs when lycopene undergoes cyclization, catalyzed by lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-β) and/or lycopene ε-cyclase (LCY-ε), resulting in the production of orange α-carotene and β-carotene, representing the α- and β-branches of the pathway, respectively. α-carotenoids possess one ß ring and one ε ring (α-carotene), whereas ß-carotenoids feature two ß rings (Chen et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Chen Y, Li F, Wurtzel ET (2010) Isolation and characterization of the Z-ISO gene encoding a missing component of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Plant Physiol 153:66–79" href="#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e996">2010</a>). α-Carotene, β-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin are considered provitamin A carotenoids, as they can be converted by the body into retinol. Further modifications of carotenes and xanthophylls lead to the synthesis of various species-specific carotenoids (Giuliano <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Giuliano G (2014) Plant carotenoids: genomics meets multi-gene engineering. Curr Opin Plant Biol 19:111–117" href="#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e999">2014</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Giuliano G (2017) Provitamin A biofortification of crop plants: a gold rush with many miners. Curr Opin Biotechnol 44:169–180" href="#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1003">2017</a>). Notably, lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene are non-provitamin A carotenoids and cannot be converted to retinol.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 8.2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 8.2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-65003-1_8/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-031-65003-1_8/MediaObjects/522360_1_En_8_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-031-65003-1_8/MediaObjects/522360_1_En_8_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="618"></picture></a><p class="c-article-section__figure-credit text-right c-article-section__figure-credit-right" data-test="figure-credit">Copyright 2018 by Creative Commons CC BY Reprinted with permission</p></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p><b>a</b> Carotenoid biosynthesis and degradation pathways. Multi-step reactions are shown by dashed arrows and red arrows indicate degradation reactions. Genes in red rectangles were those found with significantly enriched SNPs at <i>p</i> < 0.005 (Fisher’s exact test). PSY, phytoene synthase; PDS, phytoene desaturase; Z-ISO, ζ-carotene isomerase; ZDS, ζ-carotene desaturase; CRTISO, carotenoid isomerase; LCYE, lycopene ε-cyclase; LCYB, lycopene β-cyclase; β-OHase, β-ring hydroxylase; CYP, cytochrome P450; VDE, violaxanthin de-epoxidase; ZEP, zeaxanthin epoxidase; CCD, carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase. <b>b</b> Allele frequencies (<i>p</i> = 0.005; dotted lines and <i>p</i> = 0.05; solid lines) for putative carotenoid biosynthesis loci between orange and white-fleshed accessions. SNPs from the same gene in each chromosome are indicated by a different color. <b>c</b> Expression profiles of genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis in different types of roots of orange-fleshed cultivar, “Beauregard” during development. Reprinted from “Genome sequences of two diploid wild relatives of cultivated sweetpotato reveal targets for genetic improvement” Wu et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Wu S et al (2018) Genome sequences of two diploid wild relatives of cultivated sweetpotato reveal targets for genetic improvement. Nat Commun 9:4580" href="#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1038">2018</a>).</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-65003-1_8/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div> </div></div></section><section data-title="Functional Identification of Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes Controlling Carotenoid and Starch Content in Sweetpotato"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec5-section"><h2 id="Sec5" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">8.5 </span>Functional Identification of Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes Controlling Carotenoid and Starch Content in Sweetpotato</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec5-content"><p>Access to genome sequences of a wild diploid sweetpotato relative, <i>Ipomoea trifida</i> along with other <i>Ipomoea</i> genomes (<a href="https://ipomoea-genome.org/">https://ipomoea-genome.org/</a>) (Wu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Wu S et al (2018) Genome sequences of two diploid wild relatives of cultivated sweetpotato reveal targets for genetic improvement. Nat Commun 9:4580" href="#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1085">2018</a>; Wadl et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Wadl PA, Olukolu BA, Branham SE, Jarret RL, Yencho GC, Jackson DM (2018) Genetic diversity and population structure of the USDA sweetpotato (I. batatas) germplasm collections using GBSpoly. Front Plant Sci 9:1166" href="#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1088">2018</a>; da Silva Pereira et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="da Silva Pereira G, Gemenet DC, Mollinari M, Olukolu BA, Wood JC, Diaz F, Mosquera V, Gruneberg WJ, Khan A, Robin Buell C, Craig Yencho G, Zeng Z-B (2020) Multiple QTL mapping in autopolyploids: a random-effect model approach with application in a hexaploid sweetpotato full-sib population. Genetics 215:579–595" href="#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1091">2020</a>), has facilitated the understanding of the genetic architecture and identification of genes involved in starch and carotenoid biosynthesis (Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1094">2020</a>). Varietal flesh color is correlated with the amount of β-carotene content with OFSP having the highest amount of β-carotene (Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1097">2020</a>). Using a diversity panel of orange- and white-fleshed sweetpotato, possible loci (single nucleotide polymorphisms) involved in the accumulation of β-carotene in OFSP were identified in key carotenoid biosynthetic genes [phytoene synthase (PSY; itf03g05110), phytoene desaturase (PDS; itf11g08190) and ζ-carotene isomerase (Z-ISO; itf04g12320) (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig2">8.2</a>b)]. These loci can be used as targets for marker-assisted selection of crosses for beta carotene. A comparison on root types (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig2">8.2</a>c) showed an upregulation of the PSY only in the orange-fleshed storage roots suggesting its involvement in conferring the orange color in OFSP storage roots (Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1115">2020</a>). An expression bias in the PSY “orange” alleles was observed in OFSP during the later stages of storage root development, suggesting a correlation with carotenoid accumulation (Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1118">2020</a>). Likewise, in the initial month of growth, young carrot roots appear pale but gradually accumulate carotenoids, reaching peak levels around three months later, just prior to the completion of secondary growth (Baranska et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Baranska M, Baranski R, Schulz H, Nothnagel T (2006) Tissue-specific accumulation of carotenoids in carrot roots. Planta 224:1028–1037" href="#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1121">2006</a>).</p><p>New linkage and quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping methods for polyploids (Mollinari et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Mollinari, M, Olukolu, BA, da S Pereira, G, Khan, A, Gemenet, D, Craig Yencho, G, Zeng, Z-B (2020) Unraveling the hexaploid sweetpotato inheritance using ultra-dense multilocus mapping. G3 Genes Genom Genet 10:281–292" href="#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1135">2020</a>; da Silva Pereira et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="da Silva Pereira G, Gemenet DC, Mollinari M, Olukolu BA, Wood JC, Diaz F, Mosquera V, Gruneberg WJ, Khan A, Robin Buell C, Craig Yencho G, Zeng Z-B (2020) Multiple QTL mapping in autopolyploids: a random-effect model approach with application in a hexaploid sweetpotato full-sib population. Genetics 215:579–595" href="#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1138">2020</a>) have aided in identification of a QTL (Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1146">2020</a>) unraveling the genetic basis for the negative association between β-carotene and starch. Carotenoid accumulation was observed in both storage and fibrous roots of OFSP, whereas it was not reported in white-fleshed varieties (Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1149">2020</a>). A major QTL co-localized on LG3 and LG12 of the integrated genetic map explained variation in dry matter (DM), starch content, β-carotene levels, and flesh color (FC) (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig3">8.3</a>). Both parental lines contributed major alleles with comparable effects on traits located on LG12, while only the OFSP parent, Beauregard, exhibited significant allelic effects on traits at the LG3 QTL. Additionally, dry matter (DM), starch, β-carotene (BC), and flesh color (FC) traits are influenced by additive allele effects. The same contributing haplotypes responsible for reducing DM and starch content were also associated with an increase in BC and FC, elucidating the observed negative correlation between starch and BC in sweetpotato, a phenomenon akin to that observed in cassava (Rabbi et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Rabbi IY, Udoh LI, Wolfe M, Parkes EY, Gedil MA, Dixon A, Ramu P, Jannink J-L, Kulakow P (2017) Genome-wide association mapping of correlated traits in cassava: dry matter and total carotenoid content. Plant Genome 10:134" href="#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1159">2017</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Fig. 8.3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 8.3</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-65003-1_8/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-031-65003-1_8/MediaObjects/522360_1_En_8_Fig3_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-031-65003-1_8/MediaObjects/522360_1_En_8_Fig3_HTML.png" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="459"></picture></a><p class="c-article-section__figure-credit text-right c-article-section__figure-credit-right" data-test="figure-credit">Copyright 2020 by Creative Commons CC BY. Reprinted with permission</p></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>Quantitative trait loci (QTL) profiles as LOP = − log10(<i>p</i>) for β-carotene (BC), dry matter (DM), starch, and flesh color (FC in Peru and Uganda; denoted by P and U, respectively) along the genetic map of a biparental (Beauregard × Tanzania) hexaploid sweetpotato population. QTL location peaks are marked by triangles. Reprinted from “Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [<i>Ipomoea batatas</i> (L.) Lam.]” Gemenet et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1202">2020</a>).</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-65003-1_8/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div> <p>The contrasting traits exhibited by the two parents suggest that the interaction of alleles between the two QTLs dictates the presence or absence of β-carotene accumulation in sweetpotato storage roots. Additionally, the rate-limiting PSY gene (itf03g05110) in carotenoid biosynthesis was found to be positioned between the two co-localized QTL peaks on LG3, specifically at 2,994,719 bp (associated with β-carotene and flesh color) and 3,185,578 bp (linked with dry matter and starch) in <i>I. trifida</i>. The starch gene sucrose synthase (SuSY; itf03g05100) exhibited early expression during root initiation (10–20 days after transplanting) in both white and orange-fleshed cultivars. However, it continued to be expressed in white-fleshed sweetpotato beyond 50 days after transplanting. Moreover, the <i>PSY</i> gene and <i>SuSY</i> genes are situated within a 12.2 kb region with no intervening genes.</p><p>The orange (OR) protein plays a pivotal role in regulating carotenoid accumulation through post-transcriptional regulation of PSY, facilitating the formation of carotenoid-sequestering structures, and preventing carotenoid degradation (Chayut et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Chayut N et al (2017) Distinct mechanisms of the ORANGE protein in controlling carotenoid flux. Plant Physiol 173:376–389" href="#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1247">2017</a>; Zhou et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Zhou X, Welsch R, Yang Y, Álvarez D, Riediger M, Yuan H, Fish T, Liu J, Thannhauser TW, Li L (2015) Arabidopsis OR proteins are the major posttranscriptional regulators of phytoene synthase in controlling carotenoid biosynthesis. Proceed Natl Acad Sci 112:3558–3563" href="#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1250">2015</a>). Intriguingly, the Or gene (itf12g24270), situated 5.7 kb from the LG12 QTL peak, has been linked with β-carotene accumulation in sweetpotato (Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1257">2020</a>). Evidence suggests that Or modulates PSY, enabling the transformation of amyloplasts into chromoplasts in various crops such as cauliflower (Lu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Lu S et al (2006) The Cauliflower or gene encodes a DnaJ cysteine-rich domain-containing protein that mediates high levels of β-carotene accumulation. Plant Cell 18:3594–3605" href="#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1260">2006</a>), tomato (Yazdani et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Yazdani M et al (2019) Ectopic expression of ORANGE promotes carotenoid accumulation and fruit development in tomato. Plant Biotechnol J 17:33–49" href="#ref-CR99" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1264">2019</a>), Arabidopsis (Bai et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Bai C, Capell T, Berman J, Medina V, Sandmann G, Christou P, Zhu C (2016) Bottlenecks in carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation in rice endosperm are influenced by the precursor-product balance. Plant Biotechnol J 14:195–205" href="#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1267">2016</a>), corn (Berman et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Berman J, Zorrilla-López U, Medina V, Farré G, Sandmann G, Capell T, Christou P, Zhu C (2017) The arabidopsis ORANGE (AtOR) gene promotes carotenoid accumulation in transgenic corn hybrids derived from parental lines with limited carotenoid pools. Plant Cell Rep 36:933–945" href="#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1270">2017</a>), melon (Tzuri et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Tzuri G et al (2015) A “golden” SNP in CmOr governs the fruit flesh color of melon (Cucumis melo). Plant J 82:267–279" href="#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1273">2015</a>), and sweetpotato (Kim et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Kim SH, Ahn YO, Ahn M-J, Jeong JC, Lee H-S, Kwak S-S (2013) Cloning and characterization of an Orange gene that increases carotenoid accumulation and salt stress tolerance in transgenic sweetpotato cultures. Plant Physiol Biochem 70:445–454" href="#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1276">2013</a>; Park et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Park S-C, Kim SH, Park S, Lee H-U, Lee JS, Park WS, Ahn M-J, Kim Y-H, Jeong JC, Lee H-S, Kwak S-S (2015) Enhanced accumulation of carotenoids in sweetpotato plants overexpressing IbOr-Ins gene in purple-fleshed sweetpotato cultivar. Plant Physiol Biochem 86:82–90" href="#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1279">2015</a>), including purple-fleshed sweetpotato cultivars. Post-translational mechanisms governing OR and PSY protein stability contribute to increased carotenoid levels in yellow cassava (Jaramillo et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Jaramillo AM, Sierra S, Chavarriaga-Aguirre P, Castillo DK, Gkanogiannis A, López-Lavalle LAB, Arciniegas JP, Sun T, Li L, Welsch R, Boy E, Álvarez D (2022) Characterization of cassava ORANGE proteins and their capability to increase provitamin A carotenoids accumulation. PLoS ONE 17:e0262412" href="#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1283">2022</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Breeding for β-Carotene Content and Future Directions"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec6-section"><h2 id="Sec6" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">8.6 </span>Breeding for β-Carotene Content and Future Directions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec6-content"><p>Although research has prioritized the fortification of sweetpotato with provitamin A carotenoids (Low and Thiele <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Low JW, Thiele G (2020) Understanding innovation: the development and scaling of orange-fleshed sweetpotato in major African food systems. Agric Syst 179:102770" href="#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1295">2020</a>; Low et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Low JW, Mwanga ROM, Andrade M, Carey E, Ball A-M (2017) Tackling vitamin A deficiency with biofortified sweetpotato in sub-Saharan Africa. Global Food Sec 14:23–30" href="#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1298">2017</a>), the mechanisms underlying carotenoid accumulation in underground storage roots remain poorly understood across various crops, including sweetpotato (Carvalho et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Carvalho LJ, Agustini MA, Anderson JV, Vieira EA, de Souza CR, Chen S, Schaal BA, Silva JP (2016) Natural variation in expression of genes associated with carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) storage root. BMC Plant Biol 16:133" href="#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1301">2016</a>). Carotenoids are synthesized within various plastids, including proplastids, amyloplasts, etioplasts, chloroplasts, and chromoplasts (Jarvis and López-Juez <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Jarvis P, López-Juez E (2013) Biogenesis and homeostasis of chloroplasts and other plastids. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 14:787–802" href="#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1304">2013</a>). Among these, all plastids except proplastids play crucial roles in regulating carotenogenic activity, carotenoid stability, and pigment diversity (Li et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Li L, Yuan H, Zeng Y, Xu Q (2016) Plastids and carotenoid accumulation. Subcell Biochem 79:273–293" href="#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1307">2016</a>). Amyloplasts are predominantly found in starchy organs such as wheat, rice, barley, and maize seeds, as well as potato tubers and cassava roots (Jarvis and López-Juez <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Jarvis P, López-Juez E (2013) Biogenesis and homeostasis of chloroplasts and other plastids. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 14:787–802" href="#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1311">2013</a>). They primarily synthesize and accumulate carotenoids, particularly xanthophylls like lutein, zeaxanthin, and violaxanthin (Sun et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Sun T, Yuan H, Cao H, Yazdani M, Tadmor Y, Li L (2018) Carotenoid metabolism in plants: the role of plastids. Mol Plant 11:58–74" href="#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1314">2018</a>; Wurtzel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Wurtzel ET, Cuttriss A, Vallabhaneni R (2012) Maize provitamin a carotenoids, current resources, and future metabolic engineering challenges. Front Plant Sci 3:29" href="#ref-CR96" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1317">2012</a>; Wurtzel <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Wurtzel ET (2019) Changing form and function through carotenoids and synthetic. Biol Plant Physiol 179:830–843" href="#ref-CR95" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1320">2019</a>). Several factors, including biosynthetic capacity, plastid ultrastructure, and metabolic channeling, may limit carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation in amyloplasts. In contrast, chromoplasts exhibit superior capabilities for carotenoid sequestration and storage by forming carotenoid-lipoprotein sequestering substructures (Li and Yuan <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Li L, Yuan H (2013) Chromoplast biogenesis and carotenoid accumulation. Arch Biochem Biophys 539:102–109" href="#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1323">2013</a>). These substructures are proposed to act as a sink for sequestering excess carotenoids, ensuring stable storage and preventing an overload of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway products.</p><p>Among root and tuber crops, sweetpotato distinguishes itself by its ability to induce the transformation of amyloplasts into crystalline-type carotenoid sequestration substructures known as amylochromoplasts (Drapal et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Drapal M, Gerrish C, Fraser PD (2022) Changes in carbon allocation subplastidal amyloplast structures of specialised I. batatas (sweet potato) storage root phenotypes. Phytochemistry 203:113409" href="#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1329">2022</a>). This process alters both the capacity for carotenoid storage and biosynthesis, leading to increased accumulation of β-carotene (Zhang et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Zhang MK, Zhang MP, Mazourek M, Tadmor Y, Li L (2014) Regulatory control of carotenoid accumulation in winter squash during storage. Planta 240:1063–1074" href="#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1332">2014</a>; Drapal et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Drapal M, Gerrish C, Fraser PD (2022) Changes in carbon allocation subplastidal amyloplast structures of specialised I. batatas (sweet potato) storage root phenotypes. Phytochemistry 203:113409" href="#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1335">2022</a>). The observation of a mutually exclusive relationship between carotenoid accumulation and starch granule development in tobacco floral nectaries and carrot roots implies that increased carotenogenesis may act as a developmental cue, guiding the transition from amyloplasts to chromoplasts (Kim et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Kim JE, Rensing KH, Douglas CJ, Cheng KM (2010) Chromoplasts ultrastructure and estimated carotene content in root secondary phloem of different carrot varieties. Planta 231:549–558" href="#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1338">2010</a>; Horner et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Horner HT, Healy RA, Ren G, Fritz D, Klyne A, Seames C, Thornburg RW (2007) Amyloplast to chromoplast conversion in developing ornamental tobacco floral nectaries provides sugar for nectar and antioxidants for protection. Am J Bot 94:12–24" href="#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1341">2007</a>).</p><p>Moreover, alterations in chromoplast morphology observed in plants engineered for enhanced carotenoid production suggest an adaptation of cellular structures to facilitate the sequestration of newly synthesized carotenoids (Horner et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Horner HT, Healy RA, Ren G, Fritz D, Klyne A, Seames C, Thornburg RW (2007) Amyloplast to chromoplast conversion in developing ornamental tobacco floral nectaries provides sugar for nectar and antioxidants for protection. Am J Bot 94:12–24" href="#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1347">2007</a>; Kim et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Kim JE, Rensing KH, Douglas CJ, Cheng KM (2010) Chromoplasts ultrastructure and estimated carotene content in root secondary phloem of different carrot varieties. Planta 231:549–558" href="#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1350">2010</a>). However, the storage of carotenoids in modified amyloplasts leads to competition for carbon resources between starch and carotenoid biosynthesis, resulting in a negative correlation, as observed in sweetpotato (Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1353">2020</a>; Yada et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Yada B, Brown-Guedira G, Alajo A, Ssemakula GN, Owusu-Mensah E, Carey EE, Mwanga ROM, Yencho GC (2017) Genetic analysis and association of simple sequence repeat markers with storage root yield, dry matter, starch and β-carotene content in sweetpotato. Breed Sci 67:140–150" href="#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1356">2017</a>). Similar phenomena have been documented in other crops, including citrus (Cao et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Cao H, Wang J, Dong X, Han Y, Ma Q, Ding Y, Zhao F, Zhang J, Chen H, Xu Q, Xu J, Deng X (2015) Carotenoid accumulation affects redox status, starch metabolism, and flavonoid/anthocyanin accumulation in citrus. BMC Plant Biol 15:27" href="#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1359">2015</a>), potato (Mortimer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Mortimer CL, Misawa N, Ducreux L, Campbell R, Bramley PM, Taylor M, Fraser PD (2016) Product stability sequestration mechanisms in Solanum tuberosum engineered to biosynthesize high value ketocarotenoids. Plant Biotechnol J 14:140–152" href="#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1363">2016</a>; Fernandez-Orozco et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Fernandez-Orozco R, Gallardo-Guerrero L, Hornero-Méndez D (2013) Carotenoid profiling in tubers of different potato (Solanum sp.) cultivars: accumulation of carotenoids mediated by xanthophyll esterification. Food Chem 141:2864–2872" href="#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1366">2013</a>), and cassava (Olayide et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Olayide P, Large A, Stridh L, Rabbi I, Baldermann S, Stavolone L, Alexandersson E (2020) Gene expression and metabolite profiling of thirteen Nigerian cassava landraces to elucidate starch and carotenoid composition. Agronomy 10:424" href="#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1369">2020</a>).</p><p>Biofortification of sweetpotato landraces has been a continuous process leading to improved carotenoid content attributable to the adoption of advanced breeding techniques including the screening of large numbers of genotypes for nutritional quality, agronomic traits, yield traits, and the selection of progenies with the optimal traits for further breeding (Yada et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Yada B, Brown-Guedira G, Alajo A, Ssemakula GN, Owusu-Mensah E, Carey EE, Mwanga ROM, Yencho GC (2017) Genetic analysis and association of simple sequence repeat markers with storage root yield, dry matter, starch and β-carotene content in sweetpotato. Breed Sci 67:140–150" href="#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1375">2017</a>; Gemenet et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gemenet DC et al (2020) Quantitative trait loci and differential gene expression analyses reveal the genetic basis for negatively associated β-carotene and starch content in hexaploid sweetpotato [I. batatas (L.) Lam]. Theor Appl Genet 133:23–36" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1378">2020</a>). Efforts to biofortify sweetpotato have focused on increasing β-carotene content and improving organoleptic qualities of commonly consumed varieties. Replacement of white-fleshed sweetpotato with orange-fleshed varieties has benefited ∼50 million children <6 years of age at risk of VA deficiency (Low et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Low JW, Mwanga ROM, Andrade M, Carey E, Ball A-M (2017) Tackling vitamin A deficiency with biofortified sweetpotato in sub-Saharan Africa. Global Food Sec 14:23–30" href="#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1381">2017</a>; van Jaarsveld et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2005" title="van Jaarsveld PJ, Faber M, Tanumihardjo SA, Nestel P, Lombard CJ, Benadé AJS (2005) β-Carotene–rich orange-fleshed sweet potato improves the vitamin A status of primary school children assessed with the modified-relative-dose-response test. Am J Clin Nutr 81:1080–1087" href="#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1384">2005</a>). Furthermore, OFSP clones are being selected for other health traits such as increased Fe and Zn. Nonetheless, the negative starch/β-carotene correlation and the yet undefined textural characteristics has limited the actual adoption of improved orange-fleshed varieties. Therefore, comprehensive analysis of the genetic architecture of the negative association between starch and β-carotene could aid in advances of breaking this linkage as an important objective of breeding programs targeting sweetpotato for food and nutritional security.</p><p>Marker technology, including the utilization of SNPs and the determination of allele dosage, can be inferred through polyploid genotype calling methods (Pereira et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Pereira GS, Garcia AAF, Margarido GRA (2018) A fully automated pipeline for quantitative genotype calling from next generation sequencing data in autopolyploids. BMC Bioinform 19:398" href="#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1399">2018</a>; Zych et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Zych K, Gort G, Maliepaard CA, Jansen RC, Voorrips RE (2019) FitTetra 20: improved genotype calling for tetraploids with multiple population and parental data support. BMC Bioinform 20:148" href="#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1402">2019</a>). Understanding the distribution of dosage-dependent key genes and alleles associated with high β-carotene content in cultivated sweetpotato can facilitate more efficient improvement of the crop. Currently, breeders can employ marker-assisted selection (MAS). For instance, findings from a dosage study in maize revealed a consistent increase in the concentrations of lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, and total carotenoids with the addition of each dominant Y1 allele to the endosperm, with the highest concentration observed at three doses (Egesel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Egesel, CO, Wong, JC, Lambert, R, Rocheford, T (2003) Gene dosage effects on carotenoid concentration in maize grain" href="#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1409">2003</a>). MAS during the seedling stage is not only cost-effective (Slater et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Slater AT, Cogan NOI, Forster JW (2013) Cost analysis of the application of marker-assisted selection in potato breeding. Mol Breed 32:299–310" href="#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1413">2013</a>) but also presents an attractive option for addressing recessive alleles, such as combining homozygous zeaxanthin epoxidase (zep) with dominant β-carotene hydroxylase to produce orange-fleshed tubers with significant zeaxanthin content in tetraploid potato (Wolters et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Wolters A-MA, Uitdewilligen JGAML, Kloosterman BA, Hutten RCB, Visser RGF, van Eck HJ (2010) Identification of alleles of carotenoid pathway genes important for zeaxanthin accumulation in potato tubers. Plant Mol Biol 73:659–671" href="#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1416">2010</a>).</p><p>With a hexaploid genome, the breeding of β-carotene in sweetpotato can be evaluated using more advanced technologies. Strategies for metabolic engineering of the carotenoid pathway to increase β-carotene or enhance total carotenoid accumulation have been successfully implemented in plants (Bhatia and Ye <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Bhatia SK, Ye VM (2012) Metabolic engineering strategies for the production of beneficial carotenoids in plants. Food Sci Biotechnol 21:1511–1517" href="#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1430">2012</a>; Giuliano <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Giuliano G (2014) Plant carotenoids: genomics meets multi-gene engineering. Curr Opin Plant Biol 19:111–117" href="#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d75622281e1433">2014</a>). Three distinct and complementary strategies have been employed to enhance β-carotene accumulation in plants: overexpression of biosynthetic gene(s) (“push”), blocking the α-carotene branch pathway that competes with β-carotene biosynthesis and/or inhibiting the conversion of β-carotene to downstream products (“block”), and creating a sink for β-carotene accumulation by modulating the formation of chromoplasts or other carotenoid-sequestering structures (“sink”). Additionally, CRISPR/Cas-based gene editing can be utilized to fix desirable allelic variants, generate novel alleles, disrupt deleterious genetic linkages such as the beta carotene and starch, support pre-breeding efforts, and facilitate the introgression of favorable loci into elite lines.</p></div></div></section> </div> <div id="MagazineFulltextChapterBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 id="Bib1" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number"> </span>References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ul class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Arscott SA, Tanumihardjo SA (2010) Carrots of many colors provide basic nutrition and bioavailable phytochemicals acting as a functional food. 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