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All Rights Reserved. * * Licensed under the W3C SOFTWARE AND DOCUMENT NOTICE AND LICENSE. * * https://www.w3.org/Consortium/Legal/2015/copyright-software-and-document * */ (function() { 'use strict'; // Exit early if we're not running in a browser. if (typeof window !== 'object') { return; } // Exit early if all IntersectionObserver and IntersectionObserverEntry // features are natively supported. if ('IntersectionObserver' in window && 'IntersectionObserverEntry' in window && 'intersectionRatio' in window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype) { // Minimal polyfill for Edge 15's lack of `isIntersecting` // See: https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/issues/211 if (!('isIntersecting' in window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype)) { Object.defineProperty(window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype, 'isIntersecting', { get: function () { return this.intersectionRatio > 0; } }); } return; } /** * Returns the embedding frame element, if any. * @param {!Document} doc * @return {!Element} */ function getFrameElement(doc) { try { return doc.defaultView && doc.defaultView.frameElement || null; } catch (e) { // Ignore the error. return null; } } /** * A local reference to the root document. */ var document = (function(startDoc) { var doc = startDoc; var frame = getFrameElement(doc); while (frame) { doc = frame.ownerDocument; frame = getFrameElement(doc); } return doc; })(window.document); /** * An IntersectionObserver registry. This registry exists to hold a strong * reference to IntersectionObserver instances currently observing a target * element. Without this registry, instances without another reference may be * garbage collected. */ var registry = []; /** * The signal updater for cross-origin intersection. When not null, it means * that the polyfill is configured to work in a cross-origin mode. * @type {function(DOMRect|ClientRect, DOMRect|ClientRect)} */ var crossOriginUpdater = null; /** * The current cross-origin intersection. Only used in the cross-origin mode. * @type {DOMRect|ClientRect} */ var crossOriginRect = null; /** * Creates the global IntersectionObserverEntry constructor. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#intersection-observer-entry * @param {Object} entry A dictionary of instance properties. * @constructor */ function IntersectionObserverEntry(entry) { this.time = entry.time; this.target = entry.target; this.rootBounds = ensureDOMRect(entry.rootBounds); this.boundingClientRect = ensureDOMRect(entry.boundingClientRect); this.intersectionRect = ensureDOMRect(entry.intersectionRect || getEmptyRect()); this.isIntersecting = !!entry.intersectionRect; // Calculates the intersection ratio. var targetRect = this.boundingClientRect; var targetArea = targetRect.width * targetRect.height; var intersectionRect = this.intersectionRect; var intersectionArea = intersectionRect.width * intersectionRect.height; // Sets intersection ratio. if (targetArea) { // Round the intersection ratio to avoid floating point math issues: // https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/issues/324 this.intersectionRatio = Number((intersectionArea / targetArea).toFixed(4)); } else { // If area is zero and is intersecting, sets to 1, otherwise to 0 this.intersectionRatio = this.isIntersecting ? 1 : 0; } } /** * Creates the global IntersectionObserver constructor. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#intersection-observer-interface * @param {Function} callback The function to be invoked after intersection * changes have queued. The function is not invoked if the queue has * been emptied by calling the `takeRecords` method. * @param {Object=} opt_options Optional configuration options. * @constructor */ function IntersectionObserver(callback, opt_options) { var options = opt_options || {}; if (typeof callback != 'function') { throw new Error('callback must be a function'); } if ( options.root && options.root.nodeType != 1 && options.root.nodeType != 9 ) { throw new Error('root must be a Document or Element'); } // Binds and throttles `this._checkForIntersections`. this._checkForIntersections = throttle( this._checkForIntersections.bind(this), this.THROTTLE_TIMEOUT); // Private properties. this._callback = callback; this._observationTargets = []; this._queuedEntries = []; this._rootMarginValues = this._parseRootMargin(options.rootMargin); // Public properties. this.thresholds = this._initThresholds(options.threshold); this.root = options.root || null; this.rootMargin = this._rootMarginValues.map(function(margin) { return margin.value + margin.unit; }).join(' '); /** @private @const {!Array<!Document>} */ this._monitoringDocuments = []; /** @private @const {!Array<function()>} */ this._monitoringUnsubscribes = []; } /** * The minimum interval within which the document will be checked for * intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.THROTTLE_TIMEOUT = 100; /** * The frequency in which the polyfill polls for intersection changes. * this can be updated on a per instance basis and must be set prior to * calling `observe` on the first target. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.POLL_INTERVAL = null; /** * Use a mutation observer on the root element * to detect intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.USE_MUTATION_OBSERVER = true; /** * Sets up the polyfill in the cross-origin mode. The result is the * updater function that accepts two arguments: `boundingClientRect` and * `intersectionRect` - just as these fields would be available to the * parent via `IntersectionObserverEntry`. This function should be called * each time the iframe receives intersection information from the parent * window, e.g. via messaging. * @return {function(DOMRect|ClientRect, DOMRect|ClientRect)} */ IntersectionObserver._setupCrossOriginUpdater = function() { if (!crossOriginUpdater) { /** * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} boundingClientRect * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} intersectionRect */ crossOriginUpdater = function(boundingClientRect, intersectionRect) { if (!boundingClientRect || !intersectionRect) { crossOriginRect = getEmptyRect(); } else { crossOriginRect = convertFromParentRect(boundingClientRect, intersectionRect); } registry.forEach(function(observer) { observer._checkForIntersections(); }); }; } return crossOriginUpdater; }; /** * Resets the cross-origin mode. */ IntersectionObserver._resetCrossOriginUpdater = function() { crossOriginUpdater = null; crossOriginRect = null; }; /** * Starts observing a target element for intersection changes based on * the thresholds values. * @param {Element} target The DOM element to observe. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.observe = function(target) { var isTargetAlreadyObserved = this._observationTargets.some(function(item) { return item.element == target; }); if (isTargetAlreadyObserved) { return; } if (!(target && target.nodeType == 1)) { throw new Error('target must be an Element'); } this._registerInstance(); this._observationTargets.push({element: target, entry: null}); this._monitorIntersections(target.ownerDocument); this._checkForIntersections(); }; /** * Stops observing a target element for intersection changes. * @param {Element} target The DOM element to observe. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.unobserve = function(target) { this._observationTargets = this._observationTargets.filter(function(item) { return item.element != target; }); this._unmonitorIntersections(target.ownerDocument); if (this._observationTargets.length == 0) { this._unregisterInstance(); } }; /** * Stops observing all target elements for intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.disconnect = function() { this._observationTargets = []; this._unmonitorAllIntersections(); this._unregisterInstance(); }; /** * Returns any queue entries that have not yet been reported to the * callback and clears the queue. This can be used in conjunction with the * callback to obtain the absolute most up-to-date intersection information. * @return {Array} The currently queued entries. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.takeRecords = function() { var records = this._queuedEntries.slice(); this._queuedEntries = []; return records; }; /** * Accepts the threshold value from the user configuration object and * returns a sorted array of unique threshold values. If a value is not * between 0 and 1 and error is thrown. * @private * @param {Array|number=} opt_threshold An optional threshold value or * a list of threshold values, defaulting to [0]. * @return {Array} A sorted list of unique and valid threshold values. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._initThresholds = function(opt_threshold) { var threshold = opt_threshold || [0]; if (!Array.isArray(threshold)) threshold = [threshold]; return threshold.sort().filter(function(t, i, a) { if (typeof t != 'number' || isNaN(t) || t < 0 || t > 1) { throw new Error('threshold must be a number between 0 and 1 inclusively'); } return t !== a[i - 1]; }); }; /** * Accepts the rootMargin value from the user configuration object * and returns an array of the four margin values as an object containing * the value and unit properties. If any of the values are not properly * formatted or use a unit other than px or %, and error is thrown. * @private * @param {string=} opt_rootMargin An optional rootMargin value, * defaulting to '0px'. * @return {Array<Object>} An array of margin objects with the keys * value and unit. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._parseRootMargin = function(opt_rootMargin) { var marginString = opt_rootMargin || '0px'; var margins = marginString.split(/\s+/).map(function(margin) { var parts = /^(-?\d*\.?\d+)(px|%)$/.exec(margin); if (!parts) { throw new Error('rootMargin must be specified in pixels or percent'); } return {value: parseFloat(parts[1]), unit: parts[2]}; }); // Handles shorthand. margins[1] = margins[1] || margins[0]; margins[2] = margins[2] || margins[0]; margins[3] = margins[3] || margins[1]; return margins; }; /** * Starts polling for intersection changes if the polling is not already * happening, and if the page's visibility state is visible. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._monitorIntersections = function(doc) { var win = doc.defaultView; if (!win) { // Already destroyed. return; } if (this._monitoringDocuments.indexOf(doc) != -1) { // Already monitoring. return; } // Private state for monitoring. var callback = this._checkForIntersections; var monitoringInterval = null; var domObserver = null; // If a poll interval is set, use polling instead of listening to // resize and scroll events or DOM mutations. if (this.POLL_INTERVAL) { monitoringInterval = win.setInterval(callback, this.POLL_INTERVAL); } else { addEvent(win, 'resize', callback, true); addEvent(doc, 'scroll', callback, true); if (this.USE_MUTATION_OBSERVER && 'MutationObserver' in win) { domObserver = new win.MutationObserver(callback); domObserver.observe(doc, { attributes: true, childList: true, characterData: true, subtree: true }); } } this._monitoringDocuments.push(doc); this._monitoringUnsubscribes.push(function() { // Get the window object again. When a friendly iframe is destroyed, it // will be null. var win = doc.defaultView; if (win) { if (monitoringInterval) { win.clearInterval(monitoringInterval); } removeEvent(win, 'resize', callback, true); } removeEvent(doc, 'scroll', callback, true); if (domObserver) { domObserver.disconnect(); } }); // Also monitor the parent. var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; if (doc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(doc); if (frame) { this._monitorIntersections(frame.ownerDocument); } } }; /** * Stops polling for intersection changes. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unmonitorIntersections = function(doc) { var index = this._monitoringDocuments.indexOf(doc); if (index == -1) { return; } var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; // Check if any dependent targets are still remaining. var hasDependentTargets = this._observationTargets.some(function(item) { var itemDoc = item.element.ownerDocument; // Target is in this context. if (itemDoc == doc) { return true; } // Target is nested in this context. while (itemDoc && itemDoc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(itemDoc); itemDoc = frame && frame.ownerDocument; if (itemDoc == doc) { return true; } } return false; }); if (hasDependentTargets) { return; } // Unsubscribe. var unsubscribe = this._monitoringUnsubscribes[index]; this._monitoringDocuments.splice(index, 1); this._monitoringUnsubscribes.splice(index, 1); unsubscribe(); // Also unmonitor the parent. if (doc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(doc); if (frame) { this._unmonitorIntersections(frame.ownerDocument); } } }; /** * Stops polling for intersection changes. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unmonitorAllIntersections = function() { var unsubscribes = this._monitoringUnsubscribes.slice(0); this._monitoringDocuments.length = 0; this._monitoringUnsubscribes.length = 0; for (var i = 0; i < unsubscribes.length; i++) { unsubscribes[i](); } }; /** * Scans each observation target for intersection changes and adds them * to the internal entries queue. If new entries are found, it * schedules the callback to be invoked. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._checkForIntersections = function() { if (!this.root && crossOriginUpdater && !crossOriginRect) { // Cross origin monitoring, but no initial data available yet. return; } var rootIsInDom = this._rootIsInDom(); var rootRect = rootIsInDom ? this._getRootRect() : getEmptyRect(); this._observationTargets.forEach(function(item) { var target = item.element; var targetRect = getBoundingClientRect(target); var rootContainsTarget = this._rootContainsTarget(target); var oldEntry = item.entry; var intersectionRect = rootIsInDom && rootContainsTarget && this._computeTargetAndRootIntersection(target, targetRect, rootRect); var rootBounds = null; if (!this._rootContainsTarget(target)) { rootBounds = getEmptyRect(); } else if (!crossOriginUpdater || this.root) { rootBounds = rootRect; } var newEntry = item.entry = new IntersectionObserverEntry({ time: now(), target: target, boundingClientRect: targetRect, rootBounds: rootBounds, intersectionRect: intersectionRect }); if (!oldEntry) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } else if (rootIsInDom && rootContainsTarget) { // If the new entry intersection ratio has crossed any of the // thresholds, add a new entry. if (this._hasCrossedThreshold(oldEntry, newEntry)) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } } else { // If the root is not in the DOM or target is not contained within // root but the previous entry for this target had an intersection, // add a new record indicating removal. if (oldEntry && oldEntry.isIntersecting) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } } }, this); if (this._queuedEntries.length) { this._callback(this.takeRecords(), this); } }; /** * Accepts a target and root rect computes the intersection between then * following the algorithm in the spec. * TODO(philipwalton): at this time clip-path is not considered. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#calculate-intersection-rect-algo * @param {Element} target The target DOM element * @param {Object} targetRect The bounding rect of the target. * @param {Object} rootRect The bounding rect of the root after being * expanded by the rootMargin value. * @return {?Object} The final intersection rect object or undefined if no * intersection is found. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._computeTargetAndRootIntersection = function(target, targetRect, rootRect) { // If the element isn't displayed, an intersection can't happen. if (window.getComputedStyle(target).display == 'none') return; var intersectionRect = targetRect; var parent = getParentNode(target); var atRoot = false; while (!atRoot && parent) { var parentRect = null; var parentComputedStyle = parent.nodeType == 1 ? window.getComputedStyle(parent) : {}; // If the parent isn't displayed, an intersection can't happen. if (parentComputedStyle.display == 'none') return null; if (parent == this.root || parent.nodeType == /* DOCUMENT */ 9) { atRoot = true; if (parent == this.root || parent == document) { if (crossOriginUpdater && !this.root) { if (!crossOriginRect || crossOriginRect.width == 0 && crossOriginRect.height == 0) { // A 0-size cross-origin intersection means no-intersection. parent = null; parentRect = null; intersectionRect = null; } else { parentRect = crossOriginRect; } } else { parentRect = rootRect; } } else { // Check if there's a frame that can be navigated to. var frame = getParentNode(parent); var frameRect = frame && getBoundingClientRect(frame); var frameIntersect = frame && this._computeTargetAndRootIntersection(frame, frameRect, rootRect); if (frameRect && frameIntersect) { parent = frame; parentRect = convertFromParentRect(frameRect, frameIntersect); } else { parent = null; intersectionRect = null; } } } else { // If the element has a non-visible overflow, and it's not the <body> // or <html> element, update the intersection rect. // Note: <body> and <html> cannot be clipped to a rect that's not also // the document rect, so no need to compute a new intersection. var doc = parent.ownerDocument; if (parent != doc.body && parent != doc.documentElement && parentComputedStyle.overflow != 'visible') { parentRect = getBoundingClientRect(parent); } } // If either of the above conditionals set a new parentRect, // calculate new intersection data. if (parentRect) { intersectionRect = computeRectIntersection(parentRect, intersectionRect); } if (!intersectionRect) break; parent = parent && getParentNode(parent); } return intersectionRect; }; /** * Returns the root rect after being expanded by the rootMargin value. * @return {ClientRect} The expanded root rect. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._getRootRect = function() { var rootRect; if (this.root && !isDoc(this.root)) { rootRect = getBoundingClientRect(this.root); } else { // Use <html>/<body> instead of window since scroll bars affect size. var doc = isDoc(this.root) ? this.root : document; var html = doc.documentElement; var body = doc.body; rootRect = { top: 0, left: 0, right: html.clientWidth || body.clientWidth, width: html.clientWidth || body.clientWidth, bottom: html.clientHeight || body.clientHeight, height: html.clientHeight || body.clientHeight }; } return this._expandRectByRootMargin(rootRect); }; /** * Accepts a rect and expands it by the rootMargin value. * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} rect The rect object to expand. * @return {ClientRect} The expanded rect. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._expandRectByRootMargin = function(rect) { var margins = this._rootMarginValues.map(function(margin, i) { return margin.unit == 'px' ? margin.value : margin.value * (i % 2 ? rect.width : rect.height) / 100; }); var newRect = { top: rect.top - margins[0], right: rect.right + margins[1], bottom: rect.bottom + margins[2], left: rect.left - margins[3] }; newRect.width = newRect.right - newRect.left; newRect.height = newRect.bottom - newRect.top; return newRect; }; /** * Accepts an old and new entry and returns true if at least one of the * threshold values has been crossed. * @param {?IntersectionObserverEntry} oldEntry The previous entry for a * particular target element or null if no previous entry exists. * @param {IntersectionObserverEntry} newEntry The current entry for a * particular target element. * @return {boolean} Returns true if a any threshold has been crossed. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._hasCrossedThreshold = function(oldEntry, newEntry) { // To make comparing easier, an entry that has a ratio of 0 // but does not actually intersect is given a value of -1 var oldRatio = oldEntry && oldEntry.isIntersecting ? oldEntry.intersectionRatio || 0 : -1; var newRatio = newEntry.isIntersecting ? newEntry.intersectionRatio || 0 : -1; // Ignore unchanged ratios if (oldRatio === newRatio) return; for (var i = 0; i < this.thresholds.length; i++) { var threshold = this.thresholds[i]; // Return true if an entry matches a threshold or if the new ratio // and the old ratio are on the opposite sides of a threshold. if (threshold == oldRatio || threshold == newRatio || threshold < oldRatio !== threshold < newRatio) { return true; } } }; /** * Returns whether or not the root element is an element and is in the DOM. * @return {boolean} True if the root element is an element and is in the DOM. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._rootIsInDom = function() { return !this.root || containsDeep(document, this.root); }; /** * Returns whether or not the target element is a child of root. * @param {Element} target The target element to check. * @return {boolean} True if the target element is a child of root. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._rootContainsTarget = function(target) { var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; return ( containsDeep(rootDoc, target) && (!this.root || rootDoc == target.ownerDocument) ); }; /** * Adds the instance to the global IntersectionObserver registry if it isn't * already present. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._registerInstance = function() { if (registry.indexOf(this) < 0) { registry.push(this); } }; /** * Removes the instance from the global IntersectionObserver registry. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unregisterInstance = function() { var index = registry.indexOf(this); if (index != -1) registry.splice(index, 1); }; /** * Returns the result of the performance.now() method or null in browsers * that don't support the API. * @return {number} The elapsed time since the page was requested. */ function now() { return window.performance && performance.now && performance.now(); } /** * Throttles a function and delays its execution, so it's only called at most * once within a given time period. * @param {Function} fn The function to throttle. * @param {number} timeout The amount of time that must pass before the * function can be called again. * @return {Function} The throttled function. */ function throttle(fn, timeout) { var timer = null; return function () { if (!timer) { timer = setTimeout(function() { fn(); timer = null; }, timeout); } }; } /** * Adds an event handler to a DOM node ensuring cross-browser compatibility. * @param {Node} node The DOM node to add the event handler to. * @param {string} event The event name. * @param {Function} fn The event handler to add. * @param {boolean} opt_useCapture Optionally adds the even to the capture * phase. Note: this only works in modern browsers. */ function addEvent(node, event, fn, opt_useCapture) { if (typeof node.addEventListener == 'function') { node.addEventListener(event, fn, opt_useCapture || false); } else if (typeof node.attachEvent == 'function') { node.attachEvent('on' + event, fn); } } /** * Removes a previously added event handler from a DOM node. * @param {Node} node The DOM node to remove the event handler from. * @param {string} event The event name. * @param {Function} fn The event handler to remove. * @param {boolean} opt_useCapture If the event handler was added with this * flag set to true, it should be set to true here in order to remove it. */ function removeEvent(node, event, fn, opt_useCapture) { if (typeof node.removeEventListener == 'function') { node.removeEventListener(event, fn, opt_useCapture || false); } else if (typeof node.detatchEvent == 'function') { node.detatchEvent('on' + event, fn); } } /** * Returns the intersection between two rect objects. * @param {Object} rect1 The first rect. * @param {Object} rect2 The second rect. * @return {?Object|?ClientRect} The intersection rect or undefined if no * intersection is found. */ function computeRectIntersection(rect1, rect2) { var top = Math.max(rect1.top, rect2.top); var bottom = Math.min(rect1.bottom, rect2.bottom); var left = Math.max(rect1.left, rect2.left); var right = Math.min(rect1.right, rect2.right); var width = right - left; var height = bottom - top; return (width >= 0 && height >= 0) && { top: top, bottom: bottom, left: left, right: right, width: width, height: height } || null; } /** * Shims the native getBoundingClientRect for compatibility with older IE. * @param {Element} el The element whose bounding rect to get. * @return {DOMRect|ClientRect} The (possibly shimmed) rect of the element. */ function getBoundingClientRect(el) { var rect; try { rect = el.getBoundingClientRect(); } catch (err) { // Ignore Windows 7 IE11 "Unspecified error" // https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/pull/205 } if (!rect) return getEmptyRect(); // Older IE if (!(rect.width && rect.height)) { rect = { top: rect.top, right: rect.right, bottom: rect.bottom, left: rect.left, width: rect.right - rect.left, height: rect.bottom - rect.top }; } return rect; } /** * Returns an empty rect object. An empty rect is returned when an element * is not in the DOM. * @return {ClientRect} The empty rect. */ function getEmptyRect() { return { top: 0, bottom: 0, left: 0, right: 0, width: 0, height: 0 }; } /** * Ensure that the result has all of the necessary fields of the DOMRect. * Specifically this ensures that `x` and `y` fields are set. * * @param {?DOMRect|?ClientRect} rect * @return {?DOMRect} */ function ensureDOMRect(rect) { // A `DOMRect` object has `x` and `y` fields. if (!rect || 'x' in rect) { return rect; } // A IE's `ClientRect` type does not have `x` and `y`. The same is the case // for internally calculated Rect objects. For the purposes of // `IntersectionObserver`, it's sufficient to simply mirror `left` and `top` // for these fields. return { top: rect.top, y: rect.top, bottom: rect.bottom, left: rect.left, x: rect.left, right: rect.right, width: rect.width, height: rect.height }; } /** * Inverts the intersection and bounding rect from the parent (frame) BCR to * the local BCR space. * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} parentBoundingRect The parent's bound client rect. * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} parentIntersectionRect The parent's own intersection rect. * @return {ClientRect} The local root bounding rect for the parent's children. */ function convertFromParentRect(parentBoundingRect, parentIntersectionRect) { var top = parentIntersectionRect.top - parentBoundingRect.top; var left = parentIntersectionRect.left - parentBoundingRect.left; return { top: top, left: left, height: parentIntersectionRect.height, width: parentIntersectionRect.width, bottom: top + parentIntersectionRect.height, right: left + 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href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Primary breadcrumb">Home</a><span class="chevron"></span> <a data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="secondary breadcrumb" href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar">Grammar</a> <span class="chevron"></span> <a data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="secondary breadcrumb" href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/usage">Usage</a></p></div><div class="textBlock layout"><h1><span>Usage</span></h1><p><p>This <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/section">section</a> gives you lots of <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/advice">advice</a>, helping you to <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/avoid">avoid</a> making some of the most <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/common">common</a> mistakes of usage. Do you worry about the correct use of <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/hopefully"><em>hopefully</em></a>, for example, or wonder what the difference is between <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/affect"><em>affect</em></a> and <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/effect"><em>effect </em></a>or <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/flaunt"><em>flaunt</em></a> and <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/flout"><em>flout</em></a>? Are you uncertain about whether to say <em>different from</em> or <em>different than </em>or if you should say ‘a historic event’ or ‘an historic event’? And if you’ve ever been puzzled about <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cactus"><em>cactuses</em></a> versus <em>cacti</em>, go to <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/plurals-of-nouns#plurals-of-foreign-nouns" title="Plurals of nouns">Plurals of foreign words</a>.</p><p>Explore the links below to find clear and straightforward guidance on these topics and many more. You can find more help with the correct use of English in <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-tips">Grammar tips</a>.</p></p></div><div class="categories"></div><div class="categories pages"><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:38 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/adverse-or-averse" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 1"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7104/original/adverse-or-averse.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Adverse" Or "Averse"?</h2><h4>Although 'adverse' and 'averse' share a common origin, their meanings are quite different.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:46 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/affect-or-effect" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 2"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7007/original/GettyImages-1008488012.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Affect" or "effect"?</h2><h4>Confusing 'affect' and 'effect' is a very common mistake English speakers often make. Let's learn how to get it right once and for all.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:36 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/all-right-or-alright" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 3"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7105/original/all-right-or-alright.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"All Right" Or "Alright"?</h2><h4>Is it acceptable to write 'alright' as one word instead of two? The answer to that is not quite as simple as you may think.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:47 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/allude-or-elude" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 4"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7106/original/allude-or-elude.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Allude" or "elude"?</h2><h4>Allude' and 'elude' have a similar pronunciation, but they do not have the same meaning.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:38 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/commonly-confused-words" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 5"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7107/original/commonly-confused-words.jpg"/></div><article><h2>A Look At Some Commonly Confused Words</h2><h4>Spellcheckers can miss mistakes where words have been mixed up because they look and sound alike. Our video guide will help you see the difference for yourself.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:35 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/alternate-or-alternative" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 6"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7108/original/alternate-or-alternative.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Alternate" Or "Alternative"?</h2><h4>What's the difference between 'alternate' and 'alternative'? We explore the meanings of those two words, and how American usage of 'alternate' is different from British usage.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:45 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/among-or-amongst" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 7"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7109/original/among-or-amongst.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Among" or "amongst"?</h2><h4>Do 'among' and 'amongst' have different meanings? Find out how to use those two prepositions correctly.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:36 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/amoral-or-immoral" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 8"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7110/original/amoral-or-immoral.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Amoral" Or "Immoral"?</h2><h4>You may think 'amoral' and 'immoral' have the same meaning since they sound similar, but the answer to that question is a bit more complex. </h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:38 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/appraise-or-apprise" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 9"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7111/original/appraise-or-apprise.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Appraise" Or "Apprise"?</h2><h4>It does make a difference whether you 'apprise' or 'appraise' someone. Find out why.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:38 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/assume-or-presume" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 10"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7112/original/assume-or-presume.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Assume" Or "Presume"?</h2><h4>Assume' and 'presume' can often be used interchangeably. However, there's still a subtle difference between those two.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:45 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/bare-or-bear" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 11"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7194/original/bare-or-bear.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Bare" or "bear"?</h2><h4>One's a wild animal, and the other's a verb and adjective. But there's yet more to this commonly confused word couple.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:47 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/breech-or-breach" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 12"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7197/original/breech-or-breach.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Breech" or "breach"?</h2><h4>Breech' and 'breach' are homophones – although they're pronounced the same way, they have very different meanings.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:41 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/bring-or-take" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 13"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7198/original/bring-or-take.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Bring" Or "Take"?</h2><h4>'Bring' and 'take' often get confused but there's an essential difference between the two words.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:34 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/cannot-or-can-not" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 14"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7201/original/cannot-or-can-not.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Cannot" Or "Can Not"?</h2><h4>Do you write 'cannot' as one word or two? We discuss whether one form is more acceptable than the other.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:38 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/can-or-may" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 15"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7200/original/can-or-may.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Can" Or "May"?</h2><h4>There is a widespread view that using can to ask for permission is wrong, but is this really true?</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2021-09-08 22:54:40 +0100"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/censure-or-censor" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 16"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7202/original/censure-or-censor.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Censure" vs "Censor"</h2><h4>'Censure' and 'censor' are easily confused. This short explanation will help you getting them right.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:44 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/cereal-or-serial" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 17"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7203/original/cereal-or-serial.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Cereal" or "serial"?</h2><h4>Avoid embarrassing yourself by getting 'cereal' and 'serial' confused with these helpful tips.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:38 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/cite-site-or-sight" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 18"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7204/original/cite-site-sight.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Cite," "Site," Or "Sight"?</h2><h4>Although ‘cite’, ‘site’, and ‘sight’ are pronounced the same, they have different meanings and spellings. Our guide explains which to use and when to use it.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:48 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/climactic-or-climatic" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 19"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7205/original/climactic-or-climatic.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Climactic" or "climatic"?</h2><h4>Climactic and climatic might look very similar, but their meanings are vastly different. Our guide will help you learn which one to use.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:35 +0000"><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/coarse-or-course" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 20"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7206/original/coarse-or-course.jpg"/></div><article><h2>"Coarse" Or "Course"?</h2><h4>If you find it tricky to tell when to use 'coarse' and when to use 'course', then Oxford’s guide will help you out, of course. Or should that be 'of coarse'?</h4></article></a></section></div><div class="sitemap_pagination category_pagination"> <nav class="pagination" role="navigation" aria-label="pager"> <span class="page current"> 1 </span> <span class="page"> <a rel="next" href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/usage/2?locale=en">2</a> </span> <span class="page"> <a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/usage/3?locale=en">3</a> </span> <span class="page"> <a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/usage/4?locale=en">4</a> </span> <span class="next"> <a rel="next" href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/usage/2?locale=en">Next &rsaquo;</a> </span> <span class="last"> <a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/usage/4?locale=en">Last »</a> </span> </nav> </div><div class="load_more_container"><a class="seemore" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="see more in cat" href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/grammar">See more from Grammar</a></div><div class="coachGrammarBanner"><a target="_blank" data-behaviour="ga-event-coach-grammar" data-value="click coach grammar banner" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313/https://www.thesaurus.com/writingtool?utm_source=lexico&utm_medium=blog&utm_campaign=grammarcoach"><img src="/web/20211115165313im_/https://www.lexico.com/assets/dcom/cg-330973c456f4cdb40afc136644fef6646febe6e155c45b0725df1c0a92d0f42b.png"/></a></div></div></div><aside class="sideBanner"><div class="sideBannerWrap"><div class="banner adUnit"><div id="lexi_serp_dkt_atf_160x600_1"></div><div id=""></div></div></div></aside><aside id="sidebar" class="sidebar extend"><div class="sidebar-content"><aside class="banbox-mini ad-placeholder" id="top_right_rail"><div class="banner adUnit"><div id="lexi_serp_dkt_btf_300x250_20"></div><div id=""></div></div></aside><div class="dayword"><section><div class="daywordmain"><span class="wotd-title">Word of the day</span><div class="word_spacer"></div><div><div><strong><a class="linkword" id="5d7c8d20-718a-44f2-897b-d2077313357d" href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/attacca" data-behaviour="ga-event-wotd" data-value="Word">attacca</a></strong><p class="word_type phonetic_spelling">/ əˈtakə /</p><p class="word_type pos">verb</p></div></div><div class="cta"><a id="5d7c8d20-718a-44f2-897b-d2077313357d" href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/definition/attacca" data-behaviour="ga-event-wotd" data-value="Word">See definitions & examples</a></div></div></section></div><div class="news layout"><section><a href="/web/20211115165313/https://www.lexico.com/explore/word-of-the-year" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Sidebar - story 1"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="2.35" data-ratioy="1"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211115165313im_/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/entropyhub/entropyhub.github.io/master/assets/images/reexternalwotypage/202012_semicolon_lexico_WOTY_english_748x482.jpg" loading="lazy" class="lazy"></div><article><span class="article-title">It's here! 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