Carthage - World History Encyclopedia

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src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script>  <main class="left_3_column" id="main_content"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contents</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Berbers+carthage+Carthaginian_Army+Carthaginian_Art+Carthaginian_Coinage+Carthaginian_Government+Carthaginian_Warfare+Carthago_Nova+Dido+Dougga+First_Punic_War+Hamilcar_Barca+hannibal+Phoenician_Colonization+Punic_Wars+Second_Punic_War+Third_Punic_War+Tophet+UNESCO+Utica" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/5178.jpg" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/" data-pin-description="Carthage was a Phoenician city-state on the coast of North Africa (the site of modern-day Tunis) which, prior the conflict with Rome known as the Punic Wars (264-146 BCE), was the largest, most affluent, and powerful political entity in the Mediterranean. The city was originally known as Kart-hadasht..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 29 May 2020 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/zh/1-205/" class="translation_link zh " rel="alternate">Chinese</a>, <a href="/trans/fr/1-205/carthage/" class="translation_link fr " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/it/1-205/cartagine/" class="translation_link it " rel="alternate">Italian</a>, <a href="/trans/ru/1-205/" class="translation_link ru " rel="alternate">Russian</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-205/cartago/" class="translation_link es " rel="alternate">Spanish</a>, <a href="/trans/tr/1-205/kartaca/" class="translation_link tr " rel="alternate">Turkish</a></div> </div> <div class="spotify-wrapper"> <iframe data-src="https://open.spotify.com/embed/episode/53WDF0dncW7AtJC0jkMNxL?theme=0&play=1" width="100%" height="80" frameBorder="0" allowfullscreen="" allow="autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; fullscreen; picture-in-picture" loading="lazy" class="spotify-player"></iframe> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $('iframe.spotify-player').attr('src',$('iframe.spotify-player').attr('data-src')); }); </script> <style> .spotify-wrapper { height: 80px; margin: 1em 0em; overflow: hidden; background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; } iframe.spotify-player { height: 80px; border-radius: 5px; } </style> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Berbers+carthage+Carthaginian_Army+Carthaginian_Art+Carthaginian_Coinage+Carthaginian_Government+Carthaginian_Warfare+Carthago_Nova+Dido+Dougga+First_Punic_War+Hamilcar_Barca+hannibal+Phoenician_Colonization+Punic_Wars+Second_Punic_War+Third_Punic_War+Tophet+UNESCO+Utica" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/5178/roman-naval-attack-on-carthage/" title="Roman Naval Attack on Carthage"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5178.jpg.webp?v=1735212374 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5178.jpg.webp?v=1735212374 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5178.jpg?v=1735212374 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5178.jpg?v=1735212374 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5178.jpg?v=1735212374" width="300" height="125" alt="Roman Naval Attack on Carthage (by The Creative Assembly, Copyright)" title="Roman Naval Attack on Carthage (by The Creative Assembly, Copyright)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Roman Naval Attack on Carthage</div><div class="figauthor">The Creative Assembly (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5178/roman-naval-attack-on-carthage/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5178/roman-naval-attack-on-carthage/","caption":"An artist's impression of what the Roman naval attack on Carthage may have looked like during the Third Punic War, 149-146 BCE.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/5178.jpg","copyrightNotice":"The Creative Assembly - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"The Creative Assembly"},"creditText":"The Creative Assembly / Creative Assembly","dateModified":"2025-02-17T18:13:11+0000","datePublished":"2016-05-27T16:46:53+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Roman Naval Attack on Carthage","height":1600,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5178/roman-naval-attack-on-carthage/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5178/roman-naval-attack-on-carthage/","width":3840} </script> <p>Carthage was a Phoenician <a href="/Polis/">city-state</a> on the coast of North <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a> (the site of modern-day Tunis) which, prior the conflict with <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> known as the <a href="/Punic_Wars/">Punic Wars</a> (264-146 BCE), was the largest, most affluent, and powerful political entity in the <a href="/disambiguation/mediterranean/">Mediterranean</a>. The <a href="/city/">city</a> was originally known as <em>Kart-hadasht</em> (new city) to distinguish it from the older Phoenician city of <a href="/Utica/">Utica</a> nearby. The Greeks called the city <em>Karchedon</em> and the Romans turned this name into <em>Carthago</em>.</p> <p>It was founded c. 814 BCE by the legendary Phoenician queen <a href="/Dido/">Dido</a>, increased in size after an influx of refugees from the city of <a href="/Tyre/">Tyre</a> following <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a>'s conquests of 332 BCE, and afterwards expanded until it was the seat of the Carthaginian <a href="/empire/">Empire</a> with colonies (such as <a href="/Sabratha/">Sabratha</a>) along the North African coast, in <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>, Spain, and elsewhere; these would all be lost following the Punic Wars which elevated Rome to Carthage's former position as the greatest Mediterranean power.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <p>The history of the ancient city is usually divided into five periods:</p> <ul> <li>Ancient Carthage (Punic Republic) – c. 814-146 BCE</li> <li><a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> Carthage – 146 BCE - 439 CE</li> <li><a href="/Vandals/">Vandal</a> Carthage – 439-534 CE</li> <li><a href="/disambiguation/Byzantine/">Byzantine</a> Carthage (Exarchate of Africa) – 534-698 CE</li> <li>Muslim Arab Carthage (Islamic Carthage) – 698-1270 CE</li> </ul> <p>Owing to limitations of space, this article will primarily deal with Ancient Carthage/the Punic Republic.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <p>In 698 CE, the city was conquered during the Muslim Arab invasion of North Africa and destroyed. It would be rebuilt, though on a modest scale compared with the city at its height, until it was completely destroyed under the reign of <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a> I al-Mustansir (r. 1228-1277 CE) after defeating the European Christian invasion of the <a href="/Eighth_Crusade/">Eighth Crusade</a> of 1270 CE. The site would continue to be inhabited, though the ancient ruins were neglected until the 1830s CE when modern excavations began.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <h3>Foundation & Expansion</h3> <p>According to legend, Carthage was founded by the Phoenician Queen <a href="/Dido/">Elissa</a> (better known as Dido) c. 814 BCE; although Dido's historicity has been challenged, the founding does date to about this time. Dido was allegedly fleeing the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion of Lebanon, landed on the coast of North Africa, and established the city on the high hill later known as the Byrsa. The legend claims that the <a href="/Berbers/">Berber</a> chieftain who controlled the region told her she could have as much land as an ox hide would cover; Dido cut a single ox hide into thin strips and lay them end-to-end around the hill, successfully claiming it for her people.</p> <div class="big_quote">The city developed significantly following <a href="/disambiguation/Alexander/">Alexander</a>'s destruction of the great industrial & <a href="/disambiguation/trade/">trade</a> center of Tyre when refugees fled to Carthage.</div> <p>Dido's reign is described by the Roman poet <a href="/virgil/">Virgil</a> (l. 70-19 BCE), and others, as impressive, noting how the city grew from the small community on the hill to a grand metropolis. This account, and others like it, are legendary but Carthage, which seems to initially have been a minor port on the coast where Phoenician traders stopped to resupply or repair their ships, was clearly a major center of trade by the 4th century BCE.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>The city developed significantly following Alexander's destruction of the great industrial and trade center of Tyre (considered Carthage's mother-city) in 332 BCE when Phoenician refugees fled from there to Carthage. These Tyrians arrived with whatever wealth they had and, since many whom Alexander spared were those rich enough to buy their lives, they landed in the city with considerable means which established Carthage as the new center of Phoenician trade.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="16501"> <a href="/image/16501/carthage---artists-impression/" title="Carthage - Artist's Impression" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/16501.jpg.webp?v=1685949783-1665739156 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/16501.jpg.webp?v=1685949783-1665739156 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/16501.jpg?v=1685949783-1665739156 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/16501.jpg?v=1685949783-1665739156 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/16501.jpg?v=1685949783-1665739156" alt="Carthage - Artist's Impression" class="in_text_image" width="360" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Carthage - Artist's Impression</div><div class="figauthor">Amplitude Studios (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16501/carthage---artists-impression/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16501/carthage---artists-impression/","caption":"Artist's impression of what the ancient city of Carthage may have looked like, with Carthage's famous military harbour (also known as Cothon) in the background. Created by Amplitude Studios for the video game Humankind.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/16501.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Amplitude Studios - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Amplitude Studios"},"creditText":"Amplitude Studios / Amplitude Studios","dateModified":"2022-10-14T09:19:16+0000","datePublished":"2022-10-14T09:19:15+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Carthage - Artist's Impression","height":4000,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16501/carthage---artists-impression/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16501/carthage---artists-impression/","width":2880} </script> </p> <p>The Carthaginians then established a working relationship with the tribes known as the Masaesyli and the Massylii of the North African Berber (Imazighen) Kingdom of Numidia who would fill the ranks of their military, primarily as formidable cavalry troops. From a small town on the coast, the city grew in size and grandeur with enormous estates covering miles of acreage. Carthage quickly became the richest and most powerful city in the Mediterranean.</p> <p><a href="/Carthaginian_Government/">Carthaginian government</a>, formerly a monarchy, was a republic based on meritocracy (rule of the elite) by the 4th century BCE. The top position was held by two elected magistrates known as <em>suffetes</em> (“judges”) who governed in conjunction with a senate of between 200-300 members who held the position for life. Laws were passed by an assembly of citizens who would vote on measures proposed by the <em>suffetes</em> and senate. The aristocrats lived in palaces, the less affluent in modest but attractive homes, and the lower classes in apartments or huts outside the city.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>Tribute and tariffs regularly increased the city's wealth on top of the lucrative business in maritime trade. The city's harbors were immense, with 220 docks, and gleaming columns which rose around it in a half-circle, in front of towering arches and buildings ornamented with <a href="/Greek_Sculpture/">Greek sculpture</a>. There were two harbors, one for trade and the other for warships, which operated constantly in resupplying, repairing, and outfitting vessels. The Carthaginian trading ships sailed daily to ports all around the Mediterranean Sea while their navy, supreme in the region, kept them safe and, also, opened new territories for trade and resources through <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> as the Carthaginians built their empire.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="1213"> <a href="/image/1213/carthage-and-its-harbour/" title="Carthage and its Harbour" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1213.jpg.webp?v=1725876124 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/1213.jpg.webp?v=1725876124 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/1213.jpg.webp?v=1725876124 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/1213.jpg.webp?v=1725876124 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1213.jpg?v=1725876124 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/1213.jpg?v=1725876124 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/1213.jpg?v=1725876124 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/1213.jpg?v=1725876124 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/1213.jpg?v=1725876124" alt="Carthage and its Harbour" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="313" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Carthage and its Harbour</div><div class="figauthor">The Creative Assembly (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1213/carthage-and-its-harbour/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1213/carthage-and-its-harbour/","caption":"This is a 3D rendition of what Carthage might have looked like at the height of its power. In the foreground you can see the Cothon, the city's famous military harbour.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/1213.jpg","copyrightNotice":"The Creative Assembly - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"The Creative Assembly"},"creditText":"The Creative Assembly / Creative Assembly","dateModified":"2025-02-17T18:13:11+0000","datePublished":"2013-05-14T09:00:32+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Carthage and its Harbour","height":"2400","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1213/carthage-and-its-harbour/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1213/carthage-and-its-harbour/","width":"5760"} </script> The city had four residential sections, which grew up around the citadel of the Byrsa in the center, and was surrounded by walls which stretched 23 miles (37 kilometers) in length from the harbors inland. The city had all the accommodations and refinements of any great ancient city – a theater for entertainment, temples for religious observances, a necropolis, an <a href="/agora/">agora</a> (marketplace) – but on a much grander scale. Its patron deity was the goddess of love and fertility, Tanit who was worshipped alongside her consort <a href="/baal/">Baal</a>-Hamon. It is possible that children were sacrificed to Tanit in the sacred precinct known as the <a href="/Tophet/">Tophet</a>, but this claim has been challenged, and it is equally likely that the Tophet of Carthage was simply a necropolis reserved for infants and the young.</p> <h3>Affluence & Invasion</h3> <p>The city's wealth was due not only to its advantageous position on the North African coast, from which it could control sea traffic between itself and its colony on Sicily, but also to the people's skill in <a href="/disambiguation/Agriculture/">agriculture</a>. The writer Mago of Carthage (dates unknown) wrote a work of 28 volumes devoted to agriculture and veterinarian <a href="/science/">science</a> which was considered the most comprehensive on the subject of its time and reflects the Carthaginian's intense interest in farming and <a href="/Animal_Husbandry/">animal husbandry</a>. Mago's works were considered so important that they were among the few that would be spared by the Romans after Carthage's final defeat in 146 BCE. Roman references to the books are now all that remain of them.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>The Carthaginians planted fruit trees, grapes, olive trees, and vegetables in a ring of gardens irrigated by small canals and then expanded their cultivation outward beyond the city walls to fields of grains. The fertility of the land, and their expertise in cultivation, increased the city's wealth through trade with the interior as well as maritime trade elsewhere as Carthage continued to flourish.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="5210"> <a href="/image/5210/floral-seasons-mosaic-carthage/" title="Floral Seasons Mosaic, Carthage" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5210.jpg.webp?v=1733279525-1687296727 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5210.jpg.webp?v=1733279525-1687296727 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5210.jpg.webp?v=1733279525-1687296727 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/5210.jpg.webp?v=1733279525-1687296727 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5210.jpg?v=1733279525-1687296727 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5210.jpg?v=1733279525-1687296727 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5210.jpg?v=1733279525-1687296727 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/5210.jpg?v=1733279525-1687296727 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5210.jpg?v=1733279525-1687296727" alt="Floral Seasons Mosaic, Carthage" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="311" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Floral Seasons Mosaic, Carthage</div><div class="figauthor">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5210/floral-seasons-mosaic-carthage/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5210/floral-seasons-mosaic-carthage/","caption":"Floral trellis pattern mosaic with busts of the seasons in wreathed squares. From Carthage, modern-day Tunisia. Mid-2nd century CE. (The British Museum, London)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/5210.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/#person","name":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-OsamaSMAmin.jpg","description":"Associate Professor of Neurology and lover of the Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world.","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2023-06-20T21:32:07+0000","datePublished":"2016-06-14T13:19:10+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Floral Seasons Mosaic, Carthage","height":1657,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5210/floral-seasons-mosaic-carthage/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5210/floral-seasons-mosaic-carthage/","width":4000} </script> It was this expansion that first brought Carthage into conflict with others. In 310-307 BCE, North Africa was invaded by <a href="/Agathocles_of_Syracuse/">Agathocles of Syracuse</a> (r. 317-289 BCE) who sought to subdue Carthage and use her wealth to fund his wars. Agathocles was able to feed his army easily off the land because the crops grew in such abundance. He was only defeated because the Libyans and <a href="/Berbers/">Berbers</a>, who worked the land, sided with the Carthaginians who had treated them well. Agathocles was driven from North Africa and Carthage continued to prosper until it became involved in a conflict with Rome, then just a small city-state on the Tiber River in <a href="/italy/">Italy</a>, in 264 BCE.</p> <h3>The Punic Wars</h3> <p>Control of Sicily was divided between Rome and Carthage who supported opposing factions on the island which quickly brought both parties into conflict directly with each other. These conflicts would be known as the Punic Wars from the Phoenician word for the citizens of Carthage (given in <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> as <em>Phoinix</em> and in Latin as <em>Punicus</em>). When Rome was weaker than Carthage, they posed no threat. The Carthaginian navy had long been able to enforce the treaty which kept the <a href="/Roman_Republic/">Roman Republic</a> from trading in the western Mediterranean. When the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a> (264-241 BCE) began, however, Rome proved far more resourceful than Carthage could have imagined.</p><div class="intext_6 ahe-ad book_rec_banner"></div> <p>Though they had no navy and knew nothing of fighting on the sea, Rome quickly built 330 ships which they equipped with clever ramps and gangways (the <em>corvus</em>) which could be lowered onto an enemy ship and secured; thus turning a sea <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> into a land battle. After an initial struggle with military tactics, Rome won a series of victories and finally defeated Carthage in 241 BCE. Carthage was forced to cede Sicily to Rome and pay a heavy <a href="/war/">war</a> indemnity.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="5177"> <a href="/image/5177/territories-during-the-second-punic-war/" title="Territories During the Second Punic War" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5177.png.webp?v=1737108964 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5177.png.webp?v=1737108964 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5177.png.webp?v=1737108964 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/5177.png.webp?v=1737108964 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5177.png?v=1737108964 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5177.png?v=1737108964 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5177.png?v=1737108964 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/5177.png?v=1737108964 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5177.png?v=1737108964" alt="Territories During the Second Punic War" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="412" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Territories During the Second Punic War</div><div class="figauthor">Javierfv1212 (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5177/territories-during-the-second-punic-war/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5177/territories-during-the-second-punic-war/","caption":"The territories involved in the Second Punic War, 218 and 201 BCE.\r\n\r\nRed = Roman\r\nPink = Roman Allies\r\nBlue = Carthaginian\r\nLight Blue = Carthaginian Allies","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/5177.png","copyrightNotice":"Javierfv1212 - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Javierfv1212"},"creditText":"Javierfv1212 / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-02-17T18:13:11+0000","datePublished":"2016-05-26T20:11:28+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Territories During the Second Punic War","height":439,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Second_Punic_war.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5177/territories-during-the-second-punic-war/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5177/territories-during-the-second-punic-war/","width":800} </script> Following this war, Carthage became embroiled in what is known as The Mercenary War (241-237 BCE) which started when the <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> of mercenaries demanded the payment Carthage owed them. This war was finally won by Carthage through the efforts of the general <a href="/Hamilcar_Barca/">Hamilcar Barca</a> (l. c. 285 - c. 228 BCE), father of the famous <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> Barca (l. 247-183 BCE) of the <a href="/Second_Punic_War/">Second Punic War</a>.</p> <p>Carthage suffered greatly from the First Punic and Mercenary War and, when Rome occupied the Carthaginian colonies of Sardinia and Corsica, there was nothing the Carthaginians could do about it. They tried to make the best of their situation by expanding holdings in Spain but again went to war with Rome when Hannibal attacked the city of <a href="/Saguntum/">Saguntum</a>, an ally of Rome in Spain, in 218 BCE.</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div> <p>The Second Punic War (218-202 BCE) was fought largely in northern Italy as Hannibal invaded Italy from Spain by marching his forces over the Alps. Hannibal won every engagement against the Romans in Italy. In 216 BCE he won his greatest victory at the <a href="/Battle_of_Cannae/">Battle of Cannae</a> but, lacking sufficient troops and supplies, could not build on his successes. He was finally drawn from Italy and defeated by the Roman general <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> (l. 236-183 BCE) at the Battle of Zama, in North Africa, in 202 BCE and Carthage again sued for peace.</p> <p>Placed, again, under a heavy war indemnity by Rome, Carthage struggled to pay their debt while also trying to fend off incursions from neighboring Numidia under the king Masinissa (r. c. 202-148 BCE). Masinissa had been Rome's ally in the Second Punic War and was encouraged by Rome to raid Carthaginian territory at will. Carthage went to war against Numidia and, in so doing, broke the peace treaty with Rome which forbid Carthage from mobilizing an army.</p> <p>Carthage felt it had no choice but to defend itself against Masinissa's invasions but was censured by Rome and ordered to pay a new war debt to Numidia. Having only recently paid off their debt to Rome, they now owed a new crippling war debt. Rome was not concerned with whatever conflict Carthage and Numidia were involved in but did not care for the sudden revitalization of the Carthaginian military.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="5188"> <a href="/image/5188/punic-cuirass/" title="Punic Cuirass" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5188.jpg.webp?v=1733934488 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5188.jpg.webp?v=1733934488 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5188.jpg?v=1733934488 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5188.jpg?v=1733934488 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5188.jpg?v=1733934488" alt="Punic Cuirass" class="in_text_image" width="443" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Punic Cuirass</div><div class="figauthor">Alexander van Loon (CC BY)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5188/punic-cuirass/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5188/punic-cuirass/","caption":"A Punic gilded bronze cuirass from Ksour Essaf, 3rd-2nd century BCE. (Bardo National Museum, Tunisia)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/5188.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Alexander van Loon - CC BY - This license lets others distribute, remix, tweak, and build upon your work, even commercially, as long as they credit you for the original creation. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Alexander van Loon"},"creditText":"Alexander van Loon / Flickr","dateModified":"2025-02-17T18:13:11+0000","datePublished":"2016-06-06T15:55:27+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Punic Cuirass","height":1070,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/avanloon/20066133240/in/photolist-wzbbju"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5188/punic-cuirass/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5188/punic-cuirass/","width":946} </script> Carthage believed that their treaty with Rome was ended when their war debt was paid; Rome disagreed. The Romans felt that Carthage was still obliged to bend to Roman will; so much so that the Roman Senator <a href="/Cato_the_Elder/">Cato the Elder</a> ended all of his speeches, no matter what the subject, with the phrase, “Further, I think that Carthage must be destroyed.” In 149 BCE, Rome decided upon just that course of action.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-6"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_8' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>A Roman embassy to Carthage presented a list of demands which included the stipulation that Carthage be dismantled and then rebuilt further inland, thus negating the long-recognized advantage it had in trade from its position on the coast. The Carthaginians, understandably, refused to do so and the <a href="/Third_Punic_War/">Third Punic War</a> (149-146 BCE) began.</p> <p>The Roman general <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio/">Scipio</a> Aemilianus (l. 185-129 BCE) besieged Carthage for three years until it fell. After sacking the city, the Romans burned it to the ground, leaving not one stone on top of another. A modern myth has grown up that the Roman forces then sowed the ruins with salt so nothing would ever grow there again but this claim has no basis in fact. It is said that Scipio Aemilianus wept when he ordered the destruction of the city and behaved virtuously toward the survivors of the siege.</p> <h3>Later History</h3> <div class="big_quote">Power shifted from Utica back to Carthage & it remained an important Roman colony until it fell to the <a href="/Vandals/">Vandals</a>.</div> <p>Utica now became the capital of Rome's African provinces and Carthage lay in ruin until 122 BCE when Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (l. 154-121 BCE) the Roman <a href="/Tribune/">tribune</a>, founded a small colony there. Gaius' political problems, and the memory of the Punic wars still being too fresh, however, caused the colony to fail. <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a> proposed and planned the rebuilding of Carthage and, five years after his <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a>, Carthage rose again. Power now shifted from Utica back to Carthage – which became Rome's breadbasket owing to the same agricultural success which had enriched it before - and it remained an important Roman colony until it fell to the Vandals under their king <a href="/Gaiseric/">Gaiseric</a> (r. 428-478 CE) in 439 CE.</p> <p>Carthage had risen in prominence as <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a> grew and <a href="/Augustine_of_Hippo/">Augustine of Hippo</a> (St. <a href="/disambiguation/Augustine/">Augustine</a>, l. 354-430 CE) contributed to its prestige by living and teaching there. The city was considered so illustrious, in fact, that the Council of Carthage of 397 CE was held there; the series of synods which would confirm the biblical canon for the Western Church, legitimizing the narratives which would come to be known as the <a href="/bible/">Bible</a>. The Vandal invasion of North Africa did nothing to halt Christianity's development there, but tensions would rise between the Arian Christians (the Vandals primarily) and Trinitarian Christians just as they did elsewhere.</p> <p>The Vandals under Gaiseric took full advantage of the location of their new city and plundered passing ships at will while also raiding coastal <a href="/city/">cities</a>. Roman attempts to dislodge them failed and so a treaty was signed in 442 CE between Gaiseric and Valentinian III (r. 425-455 CE) acknowledging the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa as a legitimate political entity and establishing peaceful relations. When Valentinian III was assassinated in 455 CE, however, Gaiseric disregarded the treaty, believing it was an agreement only between himself and the emperor, and sailed for Rome. He looted the city but, in accordance with the request of Pope <a href="/Leo_I/">Leo I</a> (served 440-461 CE), did not damage it nor harm the populace. The Vandals would continue to hold Carthage, and profit from its location, until after Gaiseric's death.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="9418"> <a href="/image/9418/coin-of-king-gelimer/" title="Coin of King Gelimer" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/9418.jpg.webp?v=1675060503 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/9418.jpg.webp?v=1675060503 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/9418.jpg.webp?v=1675060503 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/9418.jpg.webp?v=1675060503 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/9418.jpg?v=1675060503 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/9418.jpg?v=1675060503 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/9418.jpg?v=1675060503 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/9418.jpg?v=1675060503 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/9418.jpg?v=1675060503" alt="Coin of King Gelimer" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="378" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Coin of King Gelimer</div><div class="figauthor">Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9418/coin-of-king-gelimer/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9418/coin-of-king-gelimer/","caption":"A silver 50 denari coin of the Vandal king Gelimer (r. 530-534 CE). (Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/9418.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Classical Numismatic Group, Inc."},"creditText":"Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-02-17T18:13:11+0000","datePublished":"2018-11-09T08:37:52+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Coin of King Gelimer","height":403,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:M%C3%BCnze_50_Denari_-_Gelimer_-_K%C3%B6nig_der_Vandalen.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9418/coin-of-king-gelimer/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9418/coin-of-king-gelimer/","width":800} </script> The later Vandal king Gelimer (r. 530-534 CE), an Arian Christian, reinstituted the persecution of Trinitarian Christians which enraged the Eastern <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/Justinian_I/">Justinian I</a> (r. 527-565 CE), a trinitarian, who sent his great general <a href="/Belisarius/">Belisarius</a> (l. 505-565 CE) to North Africa. Belisarius won the short-lived Vandalic War (533-534 CE), brought Gelimer back to <a href="/Constantinople/">Constantinople</a> in chains, and restored Carthage to the <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Byzantine Empire</a> (330-1453 CE) under which it continued to flourish.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-7"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_9' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>Under the Byzantines, Carthage prospered through trade and as a major source of grain for the <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (the <a href="/Western_Roman_Empire/">Western Roman Empire</a> having fallen c. 476 CE). Around 585 CE, Carthage became the seat of the Exarchate of Africa under the <a href="/Byzantine_Emperor/">Byzantine emperor</a> Maurice (r. 582-602 CE), a separate administrative region established for more effective rule of the western areas of the empire.</p> <p>In 698 CE, the Muslims defeated the Byzantine forces at the Battle of Carthage, destroyed the city completely, and drove the Byzantines from Africa. They then fortified and developed the neighboring city of Tunis and established it as the new center for trade and governorship of the region. Under the Arab Muslims, Tunis fared better than Carthage, but the city continued to thrive until the Eighth Crusade of 1270 CE when it was taken by the European Crusaders who fortified the citadel of the Byrsa. Once they were defeated, Muhammad I al-Mustansir had the city's defenses torn down and many of the buildings razed to prevent any further such occupation.</p> <h3>Conclusion</h3> <p>The site of the ancient city continued to be inhabited and was included in the region taken by the <a href="/Ottoman_Empire/">Ottoman Empire</a> (1299-1922 CE) who had no interest in excavating the ruins. The stones of the fallen houses, temples, and walls were carried off for personal or administrative building projects or left where they had been found. Modern archaeological excavation began in the 1830s CE through the efforts of the Danish consulate and continued under the French between c. 1860-1900 CE.</p> <p>Further work at the site was undertaken throughout the first part of the 20th century CE but, as at Sabratha and other sites, the archaeologists were more interested in the Roman history of Carthage. The political and cultural zeitgeist of the time defined the Carthaginians, who were Semites, as a people of little value, and antisemitism significantly influenced not only the interpretation of physical evidence but the choice of what was kept for placement in museums or discarded.</p> <div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"><div class="youtube-embed-container"><iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ex0ZtLjsQQg?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=en" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="An Introduction to the Punic Wars - Ancient Rome vs. Carthage"></iframe></div></div> <p>The history of the period of Ancient Carthage, therefore, suffered as much from these modern-day excavations as from the city's destruction by Rome or later conflicts. It was not until after World War II that systematic, unbiased, work at Carthage would begin; a paradigm consistent with the excavation and interpretation of many other ancient sites.</p> <p>Carthage still lies in ruin in modern-day Tunisia and remains an important tourist attraction and archaeological site. The outline of the great harbor can still be seen as well as the ruins of the homes, public baths, temples, and palaces from the time when the city of Carthage ruled the Mediterranean as the most opulent jewel of the North African coast.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Berbers+carthage+Carthaginian_Army+Carthaginian_Art+Carthaginian_Coinage+Carthaginian_Government+Carthaginian_Warfare+Carthago_Nova+Dido+Dougga+First_Punic_War+Hamilcar_Barca+hannibal+Phoenician_Colonization+Punic_Wars+Second_Punic_War+Third_Punic_War+Tophet+UNESCO+Utica" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This human-authored article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <div class="map_section"> <h3>Map</h3> <div class="map_wrapper"> <div class="map_container il"> <iframe data-src="/template/files/map_animation.php?il_id=244" id="map_iframe" width="100%" height="385" frameborder="0"></iframe> </div> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__9673c0a7fa34c1d753ce9978bafb8102"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0195123328/" rel="sponsored">Adkins, L & Adkins, R. A. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome.</i> Oxford University Press, 1998.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__e8ab8d00025dcb37d03ec2481b5bdc86"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0674990056/" rel="sponsored">Appian. <i>Roman History.</i> Harvard University Press, 1913.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__5b0227b69a9c6f901ebe5f369f1806ef"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0671115006/" rel="sponsored">Durant, W. <i>Caesar and Christ.</i> Simon & Schuster, 1980.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__9e6d5e74400c0fcbf85bcf103eb683a6"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0684192454/" rel="sponsored">Grant, M. <i>Readings in the Classical Historians.</i> Scribner, 1993.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__c1c7737d3b4a39402036ca89d21bf5d9"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/078671168X/" rel="sponsored">Lewis, J. E. <i>The Mammoth Book of Eyewitness Ancient Rome.</i> Running Press, 2003.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__6a7307ae41dd6c46d35dbf2bbd83c45d"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0500287724/" rel="sponsored">Matyszak, P. <i>The Enemies of Rome: From Hannibal to Attila the Hun.</i> Thames & Hudson, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__fd8fbd2b401ce7497992f19801b2cfde"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0415527163/" rel="sponsored">Mellor, R. <i>The Historians of Ancient Rome.</i> Routledge, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__89b1bd3e0e8046ba63a32f22acf4cbbe"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0143121294/" rel="sponsored">Miles, R. <i>Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization.</i> Penguin Books, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__93b09b3d58a969d27d91a327f431b6e9"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0737714573/" rel="sponsored">Nardo, D. <i>Living in Ancient Rome.</i> Thompson/Gale Publishers, 2004.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__9644eb3abd0f2e3f1ef50704348a7592"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1566192102/" rel="sponsored">Warmington, B. 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Web. 17 Feb 2025. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 29 May 2020. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. <span class="no_print">Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="editor_tools"> </div> <div class="timeline_outer_wrapper"> <div class="timeline_wrapper"> <h2>Timeline</h2> <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/login/" title="Add Timeline Entry" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Add Event</a> <a href="/ajax/ajax_print_visual_timeline.php?tag=carthage&width=950&height=600" rel="nofollow" class="thickbox outline_button visual_timeline_button" title="Visual Timeline">Visual Timeline</a> <ul id="time_list"> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_129" title=""> <div class="date">c. 814 BCE</div> Traditional founding date for the Phoenician colony of <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> by <a href="/Tyre/">Tyre</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_169" title=""> <div class="date">580 BCE - 376 BCE</div> <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> and <a href="/greece/">Greece</a> fight for dominance in <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4647" title=""> <div class="date">540 BCE</div> A joint Carthaginian and <a href="/Cerveteri/">Cerveteri</a> force wins the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of the Sardinian Sea against the Phocaeans. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_173" title=""> <div class="date">539 BCE</div> <a href="/Etruscan_Civilization/">Etruscan</a> & Carthaginian alliance expels the Greeks from Corsica. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1985" title=""> <div class="date">535 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Alalia. Carthaginian navy, in alliance with <a href="/Etruscan_Civilization/">Etruscans</a>, defeated <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> ships off the island of Corsica. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3839" title=""> <div class="date">510 BCE - 509 BCE</div> First treaty between <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> and <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_181" title=""> <div class="date">500 BCE</div> <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> expands into southern Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2181" title=""> <div class="date">480 BCE</div> Tyrant of <a href="/syracuse/">Syracuse</a> Gelon defeats the Carthaginians at the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Himera. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2799" title=""> <div class="date">480 BCE</div> <a href="/agrigento/">Agrigento</a> defeats <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> at the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Himera. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2802" title=""> <div class="date">406 BCE</div> <a href="/agrigento/">Agrigento</a> is attacked and destroyed by <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2783" title=""> <div class="date">405 BCE</div> <a href="/Segesta/">Segesta</a> comes under Carthaginian control. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_458" title=""> <div class="date">396 BCE</div> The Carthaginian <a href="/city/">city</a> of Lilybaeum is founded on <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4020" title=""> <div class="date">c. 341 BCE</div> <a href="/Timoleon/">Timoleon</a> defeats a <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> at the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Crimisus in <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4022" title=""> <div class="date">338 BCE</div> <a href="/Timoleon/">Timoleon</a> agrees a peace treaty with <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> over their control of <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4076" title=""> <div class="date">311 BCE</div> A <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> defeats <a href="/Agathocles_of_Syracuse/">Agathocles of Syracuse</a> near <a href="/Gela/">Gela</a>, <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4077" title=""> <div class="date">310 BCE</div> <a href="/Agathocles_of_Syracuse/">Agathocles of Syracuse</a> lands an army of 14,000 in North <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4078" title=""> <div class="date">309 BCE</div> <a href="/syracuse/">Syracuse</a> defeats a <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> in <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a> and kills their general Hamilcar. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4080" title=""> <div class="date">309 BCE - 308 BCE</div> <a href="/Agathocles_of_Syracuse/">Agathocles of Syracuse</a> successfuly campaigns in North <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a> defeating Carthaginian armies and taking <a href="/Utica/">Utica</a> and Hippacra. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4081" title=""> <div class="date">307 BCE</div> <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> defeats the army of <a href="/Agathocles_of_Syracuse/">Agathocles of Syracuse</a> led by Archagathus while Agathocles is in <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4079" title=""> <div class="date">306 BCE</div> <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> and <a href="/Agathocles_of_Syracuse/">Agathocles of Syracuse</a> sign a peace treaty and divide <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a> between them. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4035" title=""> <div class="date">264 BCE</div> The Mamertines at Messana on <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a> call for Carthaginian and then <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> help in defence against <a href="/syracuse/">Syracuse</a>, sparking the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_244" title=""> <div class="date">264 BCE - 241 BCE</div> <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> cedes <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a> to <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_621" title=""> <div class="date">c. 263 BCE</div> Antaros and 3000 <a href="/celt/">Celts</a> fight with <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> in the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4039" title=""> <div class="date">256 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> lands an army of four legions on African soil at Clupea during the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4041" title=""> <div class="date">255 BCE</div> <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> sues for peace during the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a> but the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/Consul/">consul</a> Regulus' excessive demands are rejected. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4042" title=""> <div class="date">255 BCE</div> A Carthaginain army led by the mercenary Spartan commander Xanthippus defeats two <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> legions near Tunis during the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2587" title=""> <div class="date">255 BCE - 253 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> fleets are wrecked by storms off Pachynus and Palinurus during the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2588" title=""> <div class="date">249 BCE</div> <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> defeats <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> in a naval <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> at Drepanum during the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_622" title=""> <div class="date">249 BCE</div> Antaros withdraws his support from <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4045" title=""> <div class="date">247 BCE</div> <a href="/Hamilcar_Barca/">Hamilcar Barca</a> raids southern <a href="/italy/">Italy</a> and then lands on <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a> during the <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_366" title=""> <div class="date">247 BCE - 183 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_589" title=""> <div class="date">241 BCE - 238 BCE</div> The rebellion of the mercenaries: Unpaid mercenaries under the leadership of Mathos and Spendios rebel against <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>. Despite a peace treaty, <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> seizes the opportunity to strip Carthage of Sardinia and Corsica. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4048" title=""> <div class="date">237 BCE</div> <a href="/Hamilcar_Barca/">Hamilcar Barca</a> arrives in southern Spain to expand <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>'s interests there. He makes his base at <a href="/Gades/">Gades</a> and founds Acra Leuce. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4049" title=""> <div class="date">229 BCE</div> Hasdrubal takes command of <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>'s armies in Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4051" title=""> <div class="date">226 BCE</div> Hasdrubal signs an agreement with <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> not to cross the Ebro river in Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4050" title=""> <div class="date">221 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> takes command of <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>'s armies in Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4052" title=""> <div class="date">219 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> crosses the Ebro river in Spain and sacks the <a href="/city/">city</a> of <a href="/Saguntum/">Saguntum</a>, <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>'s ally, sparking off the <a href="/Second_Punic_War/">Second Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4053" title=""> <div class="date">Mar 218 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> declares <a href="/war/">war</a> on <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> after <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> sacks <a href="/Saguntum/">Saguntum</a> in Spain. The <a href="/Second_Punic_War/">Second Punic War</a> begins. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4054" title=""> <div class="date">Apr 218 BCE - May 218 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> leaves Spain to cross the Pyrenees and Alps into <a href="/italy/">Italy</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_988" title=""> <div class="date">Nov 218 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> wins the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Ticinus. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_987" title=""> <div class="date">Dec 218 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> wins the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Trebia. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_986" title=""> <div class="date">Jun 217 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> wins the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Lake Trasimene. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_251" title=""> <div class="date">216 BCE</div> "<a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> ante portas." Hannibal directly threatens the <a href="/city/">city</a> of <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>, but cannot advance due to lack of supplies and reinforcements. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_250" title=""> <div class="date">Aug 216 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> wins the <a href="/Battle_of_Cannae/">battle of Cannae</a>, the worst defeat in <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> history. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4057" title=""> <div class="date">215 BCE</div> A <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> led by Hasdrubal is defeated at the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Ibera in Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1724" title=""> <div class="date">212 BCE</div> The Romans <a href="/warfare/">conquer</a> <a href="/Saguntum/">Saguntum</a> from the Carthaginians. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4060" title=""> <div class="date">212 BCE</div> A <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> is defeated in <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a> by a <a href="/Roman_Army/">Roman army</a> led by Marcellus. <a href="/syracuse/">Syracuse</a> falls to <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> who now control the island. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4058" title=""> <div class="date">211 BCE</div> A <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> defeats two <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> consuls and their armies in the Tader valley, Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4059" title=""> <div class="date">209 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> captures the Carthaginian base and treasury <a href="/Carthago_Nova/">Carthago Nova</a> in southern Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4061" title=""> <div class="date">208 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> defeats a <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> led by Hasdrubal at Baecula in Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4062" title=""> <div class="date">206 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> wins the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Ilipa in Spain. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1725" title=""> <div class="date">206 BCE - 205 BCE</div> The Romans <a href="/warfare/">conquer</a> <a href="/Gades/">Gades</a>. End of the Carthaginian presence on the Iberian Peninsula. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_254" title=""> <div class="date">204 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> sails to North <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a> in the <a href="/Second_Punic_War/">Second Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4064" title=""> <div class="date">204 BCE - 203 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> wins two battles and besieges <a href="/Utica/">Utica</a> in North <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4063" title=""> <div class="date">203 BCE</div> Carthaginian commander Mago is unable to join forces with <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> and his army is defeated in Cisalpine <a href="/gaul/">Gaul</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4066" title=""> <div class="date">203 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> defeats a <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> led by Hasdrubal in North <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4067" title=""> <div class="date">203 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> is recalled from <a href="/italy/">Italy</a> to defend <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> against <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_255" title=""> <div class="date">202 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> flees to Hadrumentum after losing the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Zama. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1211" title=""> <div class="date">19 Oct 202 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Zama: <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> defeats <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a>, ending the <a href="/Second_Punic_War/">Second Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_590" title=""> <div class="date">195 BCE</div> Facing the threat of being handed to the Romans after the <a href="/Second_Punic_War/">Second Punic War</a>, <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> flees to the <a href="/Seleucid_Empire/">Seleucid</a> court of Antiochus III and becomes his advisor. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_591" title=""> <div class="date">c. 183 BCE</div> As an ambassador to the <a href="/Hellenic_World/">Hellenistic</a> kingdom of Bithynia, <a href="/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus/">Titus Quinctius Flamininus</a>, the general who defeated <a href="/macedon/">Macedon</a>, demands that <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> should be surrendered in <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> hands. As king Prusias gives in, Hannibal commits suicide in the village of Libyssa, in order to escape captivity. The <a href="/Roman_Senate/">Roman Senate</a> did not approve of <a href="/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus/">Flamininus</a>' action. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4068" title=""> <div class="date">150 BCE</div> A <a href="/Carthaginian_Army/">Carthaginian army</a> attacks Numidia, breaking the peace treaty agreed with <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> and sparking the <a href="/Third_Punic_War/">Third Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4069" title=""> <div class="date">149 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> sends an army of 80,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry to attack <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_257" title=""> <div class="date">149 BCE - 146 BCE</div> <a href="/Third_Punic_War/">Third Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4070" title=""> <div class="date">148 BCE</div> The <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> siege of <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a>, in its second year, remains unsuccessful. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4071" title=""> <div class="date">147 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> the Younger takes over command of the siege of <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> and builds a mole to block its harbour. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_460" title=""> <div class="date">146 BCE</div> End of the <a href="/Third_Punic_War/">Third Punic War</a>. <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> is destroyed and its lands become the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4072" title=""> <div class="date">146 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> the Younger sacks <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> and enslaves its population. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2240" title=""> <div class="date">162 CE</div> The Antonine Baths at <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> are completed. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership" class="no_membership_only"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1738769252" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. 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