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<li id="toc-Key_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Key concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Place" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Place"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Place</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Place-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_of_geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_of_geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Laws of geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_of_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sub-disciplines</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sub-disciplines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sub-disciplines subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sub-disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Four_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Four_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Four traditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Four_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Branches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Physical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Human</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Technical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quantitative_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Quantitative methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quantitative_cartography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_cartography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Quantitative cartography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_cartography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_information_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_information_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Geographic information systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_information_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_sensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Remote sensing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geostatistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geostatistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Geostatistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geostatistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualitative_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualitative_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Qualitative methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualitative_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Qualitative_cartography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualitative_cartography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Qualitative cartography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualitative_cartography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Ethnography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geopoetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geopoetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Geopoetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geopoetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Interviews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Origin and history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_geographers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_geographers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notable geographers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_geographers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions_and_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions_and_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Institutions and societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutions_and_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Related fields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Related fields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Related_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Geology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planetary_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planetary_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Planetary science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planetary_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Geography: Difference between revisions</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" 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Available in 256 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-256" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">256 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%85" title="Хэкумэтх – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Хэкумэтх" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Адыгэбзэ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardrykskunde" title="Aardrykskunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Aardrykskunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%98%E1%88%8D%E1%8A%AD%E1%8B%93_%E1%88%9D%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%AD" title="መልክዓ ምድር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="መልክዓ ምድር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landgem%C7%A3rung" title="Landgemǣrung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Landgemǣrung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="جغرافيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جغرافيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheograf%C3%ADa" title="Cheografía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cheografía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%93%DC%90%DC%98%DC%93%DC%AA%DC%A6%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܓܐܘܓܪܦܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܓܐܘܓܪܦܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2" title="ভূগোল – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভূগোল" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeograf%C3%ADa" title="Xeografía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xeografía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yvyapekuaa" title="Yvyapekuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Yvyapekuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraqita" title="Uraqita – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Uraqita" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafiya" title="Coğrafiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Coğrafiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جوغرافیا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جوغرافیا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ograpi" title="Géograpi – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Géograpi" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B9g%C3%B9k%C3%B2l%C3%B2k%C3%B9nn%C3%A0kalan" title="Dùgùkòlòkùnnàkalan – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Dùgùkòlòkùnnàkalan" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2" title="ভূগোল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূগোল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaji_banua" title="Kaji banua – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kaji banua" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93-l%C3%AD" title="Tē-lí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tē-lí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Геаграфія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Геаграфія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Геаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heograpiya" title="Heograpiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Heograpiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiografi" title="Jiografi – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Jiografi" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="ས་ཁམས་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ས་ཁམས་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douaroniezh" title="Douaroniezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Douaroniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Газар зүй – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Газар зүй" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Географи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Географи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyograpiya" title="Heyograpiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Heyograpiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograf%C3%ADa" title="Geografía – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Geografía" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarachisi" title="Tarachisi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Tarachisi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkhuzgo" title="Nkhuzgo – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Nkhuzgo" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograf%C3%ACa" title="Geografìa – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Geografìa" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daearyddiaeth" title="Daearyddiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Daearyddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="جغرافيا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="جغرافيا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographie" title="Geographie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geographie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%96%DE%AA%DE%A3%DE%AA%DE%83%DE%A7%DE%8A%DE%A9" title="ޖުޣުރާފީ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ޖުޣުރާފީ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograafia" title="Geograafia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geograafia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γεωγραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γεωγραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograf%C3%ADa" title="Geografía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geografía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografio" title="Geografio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Geografio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جغرافیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جغرافیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagha" title="Jagha – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Jagha" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landafr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Landafrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Landafrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie" title="Géographie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géographie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografy" title="Geografy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Geografy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeografie" title="Gjeografie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Gjeografie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADreola%C3%ADocht" title="Tíreolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tíreolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87heer-oaylleeaght" title="Çheer-oaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Çheer-oaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruinn-e%C3%B2las" title="Cruinn-eòlas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cruinn-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeograf%C3%ADa" title="Xeografía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xeografía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Географи – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Географи" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="地理學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AD%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B3" title="ભૂગોળ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ભૂગોળ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भुगोल – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="भुगोल" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi-l%C3%AE-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Thi-lî-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Thi-lî-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="지리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labarin_kasa" title="Labarin kasa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Labarin kasa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աշխարհագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աշխարհագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografio" title="Geografio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Geografio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cm%C3%BAm%C3%BA-%C3%A0l%C3%A0" title="Ọmúmú-àlà – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ọmúmú-àlà" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heograpia" title="Heograpia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Heograpia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographia" title="Geographia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Geographia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%93%84%E1%93%87%E1%90%85%E1%94%AA%E1%96%85" title="ᓄᓇᐅᔪᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᓄᓇᐅᔪᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Географи – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Географи" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJografi" title="IJografi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="IJografi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Landfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Landfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="גאוגרפיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאוגרפיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ografi" title="Géografi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Géografi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kede%C5%8Ba_t%CA%8B%CA%8Bz%CA%8B%CA%8B_l%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Kedeŋa tʋʋzʋʋ lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kedeŋa tʋʋzʋʋ lɛɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunalerineq" title="Nunalerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Nunalerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B3_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭೂಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭೂಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="გეოგრაფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8E%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%B2%D9%81%DB%8C" title="جَغرٲفی – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="جَغرٲفی" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C3%B2grafij%C3%B4" title="Geògrafijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Geògrafijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doronieth" title="Doronieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Doronieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiografia" title="Jiografia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jiografia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawavopa" title="Tawavopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Tawavopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewografi" title="Jewografi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Jewografi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9yografi" title="Jéyografi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Jéyografi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdn%C3%AEgar%C3%AE" title="Erdnîgarî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Erdnîgarî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeografiya" title="Jeografiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Jeografiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B9%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ພູມສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພູມສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographia" title="Geographia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Geographia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2eogr%C4%81fija" title="Ģeogrāfija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģeogrāfija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographie" title="Geographie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geographie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamb%C3%AD_ma_mabel%C3%A9" title="Mambí ma mabelé – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mambí ma mabelé" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeografia" title="Jeografia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Jeografia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muantiedo" title="Muantiedo – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Muantiedo" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/tutske" title="tutske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="tutske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essomansi" title="Essomansi – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Essomansi" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6ldrajztudom%C3%A1ny" title="Földrajztudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Földrajztudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Географија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Географија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Je%C3%B4grafia" title="Jeôgrafia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Jeôgrafia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A0eografija" title="Ġeografija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Ġeografija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="გეოგრაფია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გეოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="جغرافيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جغرافيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%B3%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ပထဝဳဝင် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ပထဝဳဝင်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C" title="جوغرافی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جوغرافی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AA-l%C4%AB" title="Dê-lī – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dê-lī" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Географиясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Географиясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Газар зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Газар зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ပထဝီဝင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပထဝီဝင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlalticpacmatiliztli" title="Tlalticpacmatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlalticpacmatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardrijkskunde" title="Aardrijkskunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aardrijkskunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giugrafia" title="Giugrafia – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Giugrafia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Географи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Географи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografii" title="Geografii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Geografii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiiografii" title="Jiiografii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Jiiografii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie" title="Géographie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Géographie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Географий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Географий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AD%E0%AD%82%E0%AC%97%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B3" title="ଭୂଗୋଳ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଭୂଗୋଳ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaasa" title="Hawaasa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Hawaasa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografiya" title="Geografiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geografiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2" title="ਭੂਗੋਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭੂਗੋਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भूगोल – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="भूगोल" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>पालि</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جغرافیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جغرافیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B6%E1%82%8F%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%82%8F" title="ဟံႏပထဝီႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဟံႏပထဝီႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ځمکپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ځمکپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaagrafi" title="Jaagrafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Jaagrafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="ភូមិសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភូមិសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jografie" title="Jografie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Jografie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_long_giraun" title="Save long giraun – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Save long giraun" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD" title="Γεωγραφίαν – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Γεωγραφίαν" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ποντιακά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografiya" title="Geografiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Geografiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafiya" title="Coğrafiya – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Coğrafiya" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie" title="Geografie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Geografie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phuvipen" title="Phuvipen – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Phuvipen" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allpa_saywachi" title="Allpa saywachi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Allpa saywachi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%B5%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ґеоґрафія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґеоґрафія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%8D" title="Киэгирээпийэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Киэгирээпийэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Geography" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="भूगोलम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="भूगोलम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9C" title="ᱚᱛᱱᱚᱜ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱚᱛᱱᱚᱜ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DB%81" title="جغرافیہ – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="جغرافیہ" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographie" title="Geographie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Geographie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutafase" title="Thutafase – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Thutafase" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeografia" title="Gjeografia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjeografia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giugraf%C3%ACa" title="Giugrafìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Giugrafìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%96%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BD_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="භූගෝල විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භූගෝල විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Geography" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A" title="جاگرافي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جاگرافي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temhlaba" title="Temhlaba – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Temhlaba" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>SiSwati</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia" title="Geografia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Geografia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografijo" title="Geografijo – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Geografijo" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juqraafi" title="Juqraafi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Juqraafi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جوگرافیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جوگرافیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Географија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Географија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija" title="Geografija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geografija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ografi" title="Géografi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Géografi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maantiede" title="Maantiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Maantiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heograpiya" title="Heograpiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Heograpiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="புவியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புவியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarakal" title="Tarakal – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tarakal" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnamurt" title="Tasnamurt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnamurt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciugrafije" title="Sciugrafije – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Sciugrafije" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tarandíne</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B3_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="భూగోళ శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భూగోళ శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ภูมิศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภูมิศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D1%83%D2%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%91" title="Ҷуғрофиё – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷуғрофиё" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%95%E1%8F%B2%E1%8E%B2%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9_%E1%8E%A1%E1%8E%B6%E1%8E%AF" title="ᎠᏓᏕᏲᎲᏍᎩ ᎡᎶᎯ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏓᏕᏲᎲᏍᎩ ᎡᎶᎯ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B3_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭೂಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಭೂಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafya" title="Coğrafya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Coğrafya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi%C3%BDa" title="Geografiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Geografiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyeografi" title="Gyeografi – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Gyeografi" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Twi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="География" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Географія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Географія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DB%81" title="جغرافیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جغرافیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%87%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95" title="جۇغراپىيە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="جۇغراپىيە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deihleix" title="Deihleix – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Deihleix" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeografia" title="Zeografia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Zeografia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografii" title="Geografii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Geografii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_l%C3%BD" title="Địa lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taledav" title="Taledav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Taledav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maatiid%C3%BCs" title="Maatiidüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Maatiidüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djeyografeye" title="Djeyografeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Djeyografeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="地理學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eirdrykskunde" title="Eirdrykskunde – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Eirdrykskunde" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyograpiya" title="Heyograpiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Heyograpiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melosuuf" title="Melosuuf – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Melosuuf" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="地理學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-mbangu" title="Ntivo-mbangu – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-mbangu" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%90%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A2" title="געאגראפיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="געאגראפיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%E1%BA%B9%CC%81%E1%BB%8D%CC%81gr%C3%A1f%C3%AC" title="Jẹ́ọ́gráfì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Jẹ́ọ́gráfì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="地理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafya" title="Coğrafya – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Coğrafya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heografie" title="Heografie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Heografie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geuograp%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Geuograpėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Geuograpėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地理学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="地理学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bbc mw-list-item"><a href="https://bbc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograpi" title="Geograpi – Batak Toba" lang="bbc" hreflang="bbc" data-title="Geograpi" data-language-autonym="Batak Toba" data-language-local-name="Batak Toba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Toba</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograpi" title="Geograpi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Geograpi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidtana%27" title="Sidtana' – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Sidtana'" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi" title="Geografi – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Geografi" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tdd mw-list-item"><a href="https://tdd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A5%99%E1%A5%A3%E1%A5%AD%E1%A5%B0_%E1%A5%99%E1%A5%A3%E1%A5%B3_%E1%A5%97%E1%A5%A3%E1%A5%B3_%E1%A5%9D%E1%A5%A4%E1%A5%B1" title="ᥙᥣᥭᥰ ᥙᥣᥳ ᥗᥣᥳ ᥝᥤᥱ – Tai Nuea" lang="tdd" hreflang="tdd" data-title="ᥙᥣᥭᥰ ᥙᥣᥳ ᥗᥣᥳ ᥝᥤᥱ" data-language-autonym="ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ" data-language-local-name="Tai Nuea" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Co%C7%A7rafij%C9%99" title="Čoǧrafijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Čoǧrafijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%94%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%BD%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8D%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1071#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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Added citations.</span></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle5"></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography&diff=prev&oldid=1230105005" title="Geography" id="differences-prevlink">← Previous edit</a></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-ntitle diff-side-added"><div id="mw-diff-ntitle1"><strong><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography&oldid=1256523065" title="Geography">Latest revision as of 09:46, 10 November 2024</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography&action=edit" title="Geography">view source</a></span><span class="mw-diff-timestamp" data-timestamp="2024-11-10T09:46:00Z"></span> </strong></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle2"><a href="/wiki/User:SomeCatOnTheInternet" class="mw-userlink" title="User:SomeCatOnTheInternet" data-mw-revid="1256523065"><bdi>SomeCatOnTheInternet</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:SomeCatOnTheInternet" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:SomeCatOnTheInternet">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/SomeCatOnTheInternet" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/SomeCatOnTheInternet">contribs</a>)</span><div class="mw-diff-usermetadata"><div class="mw-diff-userroles"></div><div class="mw-diff-usereditcount"><span>64</span> edits</div></div></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle3"><span class="comment mw-comment-none">No edit summary</span></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle5"><span class="mw-tag-markers"><a href="/wiki/Special:Tags" title="Special:Tags">Tags</a>: <span class="mw-tag-marker mw-tag-marker-visualeditor"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:VisualEditor" title="Wikipedia:VisualEditor">Visual edit</a></span> <span class="mw-tag-marker mw-tag-marker-mobile_edit">Mobile edit</span> <span class="mw-tag-marker mw-tag-marker-mobile_web_edit">Mobile web edit</span></span></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle4"> </div></td> </tr><tr><td colspan="4" class="diff-multi" lang="en">(17 intermediate revisions by 10 users not shown)</td></tr><tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 11:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 11:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>'''Geography''' (from [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|γεωγραφία}} {{transl|grc|geōgraphía}}; combining {{transl|grc|gê}} 'Earth' and {{transl|grc|gráphō}} 'write') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of [[Earth]].<ref name='intro1'>{{cite book |last1=Dahlman |first1=Carl |last2=Renwick |first2=William |title=Introduction to Geography: People, Places & Environment |date=2014 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0137504510 |edition=6th }}</ref> Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and [[world|its human and natural complexities]]—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many [[concept]]s can be applied more broadly to other [[Astronomical object|celestial bodies]] in the field of [[planetary science]].<ref name=Burt>{{cite book |last1=Burt |first1=Tim |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Scale, Resolution, Analysis, and Synthesis in Physical Geography |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=85–96 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Geography has been called "a bridge between [[natural science]] and [[social science]] disciplines."<ref name="Sala1" /></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>'''Geography''' (from [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|γεωγραφία}} {{transl|grc|geōgraphía}}; combining {{transl|grc|gê}} 'Earth' and {{transl|grc|gráphō}} 'write') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of [[Earth]].<ref name='intro1'>{{cite book |last1=Dahlman |first1=Carl |last2=Renwick |first2=William |title=Introduction to Geography: People, Places & Environment |date=2014 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0137504510 |edition=6th }}</ref> Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and [[world|its human and natural complexities]]—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many [[concept]]s can be applied more broadly to other [[Astronomical object|celestial bodies]] in the field of [[planetary science]].<ref name=Burt>{{cite book |last1=Burt |first1=Tim |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Scale, Resolution, Analysis, and Synthesis in Physical Geography |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=85–96 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Geography has been called "a bridge between [[natural science]] and [[social science]] disciplines."<ref name="Sala1" /></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek [[Eratosthenes]] of Cyrene, who may have coined the term "geographia" ({{circa|276 BC|195/194 BC}}).<ref name="Roller">{{cite book |last1=Roller |first1=Duane W. |title=Eratosthenes' Geography |date=2010 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=New Jersey |isbn=9780691142678 |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691142678/eratosthenes-geography |access-date=29 January 2024}}</ref> The first recorded use of the word [[Geography (Ptolemy)|γεωγραφία]] was as the title of a book by Greek scholar [[Claudius Ptolemy]] (100 – 170 AD).<ref name='intro1'/> This work created the so-called "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography, which included "Ptolemaic cartographic theory."<ref name="Brentjes2009">{{cite book |last1=Brentjes |first1=Sonja |title=International Encyclopedia of Human Geography |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044911-1 |pages=414–427 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B978008044910400002X |access-date=29 January 2024 |chapter=Cartography in Islamic Societies}}</ref> However, the concepts of geography (such as [[cartography]]) date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient [[Babylon]].<ref name="Kurt-2009">{{Cite book|title=Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in Pre-Modern Societies|author=Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3|page=147}}</ref> The [[history of geography]] as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale.<ref name="Thrift1" /><ref name="Kent1" /><ref name="Tuan1" /><ref name="Tuan2" /><ref name="Castree1" /><ref name="Gregory1" /></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek [[Eratosthenes]] of Cyrene, who may have coined the term "geographia" ({{circa|276 BC|195/194 BC}}).<ref name="Roller">{{cite book |last1=Roller |first1=Duane W. |title=Eratosthenes' Geography |date=2010 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=New Jersey |isbn=9780691142678 |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691142678/eratosthenes-geography |access-date=29 January 2024}}</ref> The first recorded use of the word [[Geography (Ptolemy)|γεωγραφία]] was as the title of a book by Greek scholar [[Claudius Ptolemy]] (100 – 170 AD).<ref name='intro1'/> This work created the so-called "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography, which included "Ptolemaic cartographic theory."<ref name="Brentjes2009">{{cite book |last1=Brentjes |first1=Sonja |title=International Encyclopedia of Human Geography |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044911-1 |pages=414–427 |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">chapter-</ins>url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B978008044910400002X |access-date=29 January 2024 |chapter=Cartography in Islamic Societies}}</ref> However, the concepts of geography (such as [[cartography]]) date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient [[Babylon]].<ref name="Kurt-2009">{{Cite book|title=Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in Pre-Modern Societies|author=Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3|page=147}}</ref> The [[history of geography]] as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale.<ref name="Thrift1" /><ref name="Kent1" /><ref name="Tuan1" /><ref name="Tuan2" /><ref name="Castree1" /><ref name="Gregory1" /></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches.<ref name="Traditions1" /><ref name="Sala1" /><ref name="Tambassi" /> Techniques employed can generally be broken down into [[quantitative geography|quantitative]]<ref name="Fotheringham1" /> and [[Qualitative geography|qualitative]]<ref name="RyanBurns1" /> approaches, with many studies taking [[mixed-methods research|mixed-methods]] approaches.<ref name="Diriwächter1">Diriwächter, R. & Valsiner, J. (January 2006) [http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/72 Qualitative Developmental Research Methods in Their Historical and Epistemological Contexts]. FQS. Vol 7, No. 1, Art. 8</ref> Common techniques include [[cartography]], [[remote sensing]], [[interview]]s, and [[surveying]].</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches.<ref name="Traditions1" /><ref name="Sala1" /><ref name="Tambassi" /> Techniques employed can generally be broken down into [[quantitative geography|quantitative]]<ref name="Fotheringham1" /> and [[Qualitative geography|qualitative]]<ref name="RyanBurns1" /> approaches, with many studies taking [[mixed-methods research|mixed-methods]] approaches.<ref name="Diriwächter1">Diriwächter, R. & Valsiner, J. (January 2006) [http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/72 Qualitative Developmental Research Methods in Their Historical and Epistemological Contexts]. FQS. Vol 7, No. 1, Art. 8</ref> Common techniques include [[cartography]], [[remote sensing]], [[interview]]s, and [[surveying]].<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>== Fundamentals ==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>== Fundamentals ==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 25:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 25:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Key concepts===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Key concepts===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Narrowing down geography to a few key concepts is extremely challenging, and subject to tremendous debate within the discipline.<ref name="KeyConcepts2014">{{cite book |editor1-last=Clifford |editor1-first=Nicholas J. |editor2-last=Holloway |editor2-first=Sarah L. |editor3-last=Rice |editor3-first=Stephen P. |editor4-last=Valentine |editor4-first=Gill |title=Key Concepts in Geography |date=2014 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4129-3022-2 |edition=2nd |url=https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/key-concepts-in-geography/book230446 |access-date=2 December 2023}}</ref> In one attempt, the 1st edition of the book "Key Concepts in Geography" broke down this into chapters focusing on "Space," "Place," "Time," "Scale," and "Landscape."<ref name="KeyConcepts2003">{{cite book |editor1-last=Holloway |editor1-first=Sarah L. |editor2-last=Rice |editor2-first=Stephen P. |editor3-last=Valentine |editor3-first=Gill |title=Key Concepts in Geography |date=2003 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-0761973898 |edition=1st}}</ref> The 2nd edition of the book expanded on these key concepts by adding "Environmental systems," "Social Systems," "Nature," "[[Globalization]]," "Development," and "Risk," demonstrating how challenging narrowing the field can be.<ref name="KeyConcepts2014" />[[File:17th Century map of Pembrokeshire.jpg|thumb|Maps, like this 17th Century depiction of [[Pembrokeshire]], are a central element in the study of geography.]]Another approach used extensively in teaching geography are the [[Five themes of geography]] established by "Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools," published jointly by the [[National Council for Geographic Education]] and the [[Association of American Geographers]] in 1984.<ref name="Guidelines1984">{{cite book |title=Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools |date=1984 |publisher=The Council |isbn=9780892911851}}</ref><ref name="Natoli1994">{{cite journal |last1=Natoli |first1=Salvatore J. |title=''Guidelines for Geographic Education'' and the Fundamental Themes in Geography |journal=[[Journal of Geography]] |date=1 January 1994 |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=2–6 |doi=10.1080/00221349408979676 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00221349408979676 |issn=0022-1341}}</ref> These themes are Location, place, relationships within places (often summarized as Human-Environment Interaction), movement, and regions.<ref name="Natoli1994" /><ref name="Brown2015">{{cite journal |last1=Buchanan |first1=Lisa Brown |last2=Tschida |first2=Christina M. |title=Exploring the five themes of geography using technology |journal=The Ohio Social Studies Review |date=2015 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=29–39 |url=https://ossr.scholasticahq.com/api/v1/attachments/2781/download}}</ref> The five themes of geography have shaped how American education approaches the topic in the years since.<ref name="Natoli1994" /><ref name="Brown2015" /></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Narrowing down geography to a few key concepts is extremely challenging, and subject to tremendous debate within the discipline.<ref name="KeyConcepts2014">{{cite book |editor1-last=Clifford |editor1-first=Nicholas J. |editor2-last=Holloway |editor2-first=Sarah L. |editor3-last=Rice |editor3-first=Stephen P. |editor4-last=Valentine |editor4-first=Gill |title=Key Concepts in Geography |date=2014 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4129-3022-2 |edition=2nd |url=https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/key-concepts-in-geography/book230446 |access-date=2 December 2023}}</ref> In one attempt, the 1st edition of the book "Key Concepts in Geography" broke down this into chapters focusing on "Space," "Place," "Time," "Scale," and "Landscape."<ref name="KeyConcepts2003">{{cite book |editor1-last=Holloway |editor1-first=Sarah L. |editor2-last=Rice |editor2-first=Stephen P. |editor3-last=Valentine |editor3-first=Gill |title=Key Concepts in Geography |date=2003 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-0761973898 |edition=1st}}</ref> The 2nd edition of the book expanded on these key concepts by adding "Environmental systems," "Social Systems," "Nature," "[[Globalization]]," "Development," and "Risk," demonstrating how challenging narrowing the field can be.<ref name="KeyConcepts2014" />[[File:17th Century map of Pembrokeshire.jpg|thumb|Maps, like this 17th Century depiction of [[Pembrokeshire]], are a central element in the study of geography.]]Another approach used extensively in teaching geography are the [[Five themes of geography]] established by "Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools," published jointly by the [[National Council for Geographic Education]] and the [[Association of American Geographers]] in 1984.<ref name="Guidelines1984">{{cite book |title=Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools |date=1984 |publisher=The Council |isbn=9780892911851}}</ref><ref name="Natoli1994">{{cite journal |last1=Natoli |first1=Salvatore J. |title=''Guidelines for Geographic Education'' and the Fundamental Themes in Geography |journal=[[Journal of Geography]] |date=1 January 1994 |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=2–6 |doi=10.1080/00221349408979676<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |bibcode=1994JGeog..93....2N</ins> |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00221349408979676 |issn=0022-1341}}</ref> These themes are Location, place, relationships within places (often summarized as Human-Environment Interaction), movement, and regions.<ref name="Natoli1994" /><ref name="Brown2015">{{cite journal |last1=Buchanan |first1=Lisa Brown |last2=Tschida |first2=Christina M. |title=Exploring the five themes of geography using technology |journal=The Ohio Social Studies Review |date=2015 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=29–39 |url=https://ossr.scholasticahq.com/api/v1/attachments/2781/download}}</ref> The five themes of geography have shaped how American education approaches the topic in the years since.<ref name="Natoli1994" /><ref name="Brown2015" /></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>====Space====</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>====Space====</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 33:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 33:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{blockquote|text=Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography.<ref name=GeographyPerspective1>{{Cite book |last= |chapter=Chapter 3: Geography's Perspectives|url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4913&page=28 |title=Rediscovering Geography: New Relevance for Science and Society |date=1997 |publisher=The National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-05199-6 |location=Washington, DC |page=28 |doi=10.17226/4913 |access-date=2014-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507035328/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4913&page=28 |archive-date=2014-05-07 |url-status=live}}</ref>|sign=[[United States National Research Council]], 1997}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{blockquote|text=Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography.<ref name=GeographyPerspective1>{{Cite book |last= |chapter=Chapter 3: Geography's Perspectives|url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4913&page=28 |title=Rediscovering Geography: New Relevance for Science and Society |date=1997 |publisher=The National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-05199-6 |location=Washington, DC |page=28 |doi=10.17226/4913 |access-date=2014-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507035328/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4913&page=28 |archive-date=2014-05-07 |url-status=live}}</ref>|sign=[[United States National Research Council]], 1997}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>For something to exist in the realm of geography, it must be able to be described spatially.<ref name="GeographyPerspective1" /><ref name=Matthews1>{{cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=John |last2=Herbert |first2=David |title=Geography: A very short introduction |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-921128-9 }}</ref> Thus, space is the most fundamental concept at the foundation of geography.<ref name=Thrift1>{{cite book |last1=Thrift |first1=Nigel |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Space, The Fundamental Stuff of Geography |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=85–96 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name=Kent1>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Martin |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Space, Making Room for Space in Physical Geography |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=97–119 |edition=2nd}}</ref> The concept is so basic, that geographers often have difficulty defining exactly what it is. [[Absolute space and time|Absolute space]] is the exact site, or spatial coordinates, of objects, persons, places, or phenomena under investigation.<ref name=Thrift1/> We exist in space.<ref name=Tuan1>{{cite book |last1=Tuan |first1=Yi-Fu |title=Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience |date=1977 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=0-8166-3877-2 }}</ref> Absolute space leads to the view of the world as a photograph, with everything frozen in place when the coordinates were recorded. Today, geographers are trained to recognize the world as a dynamic space where all processes interact and take place, rather than a static image on a map.<ref name=Thrift1/><ref name=Chen1>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiang |last2=Clark |first2=Jill |title=Interactive three-dimensional geovisualization of space-time access to food |journal=Applied Geography |date=2013 |volume=43 |pages=81–86 |doi=10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.05.012 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143622813001367 |access-date=7 December 2022}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>For something to exist in the realm of geography, it must be able to be described spatially.<ref name="GeographyPerspective1" /><ref name=Matthews1>{{cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=John |last2=Herbert |first2=David |title=Geography: A very short introduction |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-921128-9 }}</ref> Thus, space is the most fundamental concept at the foundation of geography.<ref name=Thrift1>{{cite book |last1=Thrift |first1=Nigel |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Space, The Fundamental Stuff of Geography |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=85–96 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name=Kent1>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Martin |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Space, Making Room for Space in Physical Geography |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=97–119 |edition=2nd}}</ref> The concept is so basic, that geographers often have difficulty defining exactly what it is. [[Absolute space and time|Absolute space]] is the exact site, or spatial coordinates, of objects, persons, places, or phenomena under investigation.<ref name=Thrift1/> We exist in space.<ref name=Tuan1>{{cite book |last1=Tuan |first1=Yi-Fu |title=Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience |date=1977 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=0-8166-3877-2 }}</ref> Absolute space leads to the view of the world as a photograph, with everything frozen in place when the coordinates were recorded. Today, geographers are trained to recognize the world as a dynamic space where all processes interact and take place, rather than a static image on a map.<ref name=Thrift1/><ref name=Chen1>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiang |last2=Clark |first2=Jill |title=Interactive three-dimensional geovisualization of space-time access to food |journal=Applied Geography |date=2013 |volume=43 |pages=81–86 |doi=10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.05.012<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |bibcode=2013AppGe..43...81C</ins> |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143622813001367 |access-date=7 December 2022}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>====Place====</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>====Place====</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 52:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 52:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Map scale - 8km, 5mi.png|thumb|upright=1.3|A graphical or bar scale. A map would also usually give its scale numerically ("1:50,000", for instance, means that one&nbsp;cm on the map represents 50,000&nbsp;cm of real space, which is 500&nbsp;meters).]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Map scale - 8km, 5mi.png|thumb|upright=1.3|A graphical or bar scale. A map would also usually give its scale numerically ("1:50,000", for instance, means that one&nbsp;cm on the map represents 50,000&nbsp;cm of real space, which is 500&nbsp;meters).]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a distance measured on the map and the corresponding distance as measured on the ground.<ref name=Burt/><ref name=Herod>{{cite book |last1=Herod |first1=Andrew |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Scale, the local and the global |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=85–96 |edition=2nd}}</ref> This concept is fundamental to the discipline of geography, not just cartography, in that phenomena being investigated appear different depending on the scale used.<ref name=Arbia1>{{cite journal |last1=Arbia |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Benedetti |first2=R. |last3=Espa |first3=G. |title="Effects of MAUP on image classification" |journal=Journal of Geographical Systems |date=1996 |volume=3 |pages=123–141}}</ref><ref name="SmithLaws">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Peter |title=The laws of geography |journal=Teaching Geography |date=2005 |volume=30 |issue=3 |page=150 |jstor=23756334 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23756334 }}</ref> Scale is the frame that geographers use to measure space, and ultimately to<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> try and</del> understand a place.<ref name=Herod/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a distance measured on the map and the corresponding distance as measured on the ground.<ref name=Burt/><ref name=Herod>{{cite book |last1=Herod |first1=Andrew |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Scale, the local and the global |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=85–96 |edition=2nd}}</ref> This concept is fundamental to the discipline of geography, not just cartography, in that phenomena being investigated appear different depending on the scale used.<ref name=Arbia1>{{cite journal |last1=Arbia |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Benedetti |first2=R. |last3=Espa |first3=G. |title="Effects of MAUP on image classification" |journal=Journal of Geographical Systems |date=1996 |volume=3 |pages=123–141}}</ref><ref name="SmithLaws">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Peter |title=The laws of geography |journal=Teaching Geography |date=2005 |volume=30 |issue=3 |page=150 |jstor=23756334 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23756334 }}</ref> Scale is the frame that geographers use to measure space, and ultimately to understand a place.<ref name=Herod/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Laws of geography{{anchor|Laws}}===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Laws of geography{{anchor|Laws}}===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 59:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 59:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Tobler's second law of geography]]: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."<ref name="Tobler3"/><ref name='Tobler4'>{{cite journal |last1=Tobler |first1=Waldo |title=Linear pycnophylactic reallocation comment on a paper by D. Martin |journal=International Journal of Geographical Information Science |date=1999 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |doi=10.1080/136588199241472|bibcode=1999IJGIS..13...85T }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [[Tobler's second law of geography]]: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."<ref name="Tobler3"/><ref name='Tobler4'>{{cite journal |last1=Tobler |first1=Waldo |title=Linear pycnophylactic reallocation comment on a paper by D. Martin |journal=International Journal of Geographical Information Science |date=1999 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |doi=10.1080/136588199241472|bibcode=1999IJGIS..13...85T }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Arbia's law of geography]]: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."<ref name=Arbia1/><ref name="Tobler3"/><ref name="SmithLaws" /><ref name=Hecht1>{{cite book |last1=Hecht |first1=Brent |last2=Moxley |first2=Emily |title=Spatial Information Theory |chapter=Terabytes of Tobler: Evaluating the First Law in a Massive, Domain-Neutral Representation of World Knowledge |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2009 |volume=5756 |page=88 |publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-03832-7_6 |bibcode=2009LNCS.5756...88H |isbn=978-3-642-03831-0 }}</ref><ref name="Otto1">{{citation |last1=Otto |first1=Philipp |last2=Dogan |first2=Osman |last3=Taspınar |first3=Suleyman |title=A Dynamic Spatiotemporal Stochastic Volatility Model with an Application to Environmental Risks |journal=Econometrics and Statistics |date=2023 |doi=10.1016/j.ecosta.2023.11.002 |arxiv=2211.03178 |s2cid=253384426 }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [[Arbia's law of geography]]: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."<ref name=Arbia1/><ref name="Tobler3"/><ref name="SmithLaws" /><ref name=Hecht1>{{cite book |last1=Hecht |first1=Brent |last2=Moxley |first2=Emily |title=Spatial Information Theory |chapter=Terabytes of Tobler: Evaluating the First Law in a Massive, Domain-Neutral Representation of World Knowledge |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2009 |volume=5756 |page=88 |publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-03832-7_6 |bibcode=2009LNCS.5756...88H |isbn=978-3-642-03831-0 }}</ref><ref name="Otto1">{{citation |last1=Otto |first1=Philipp |last2=Dogan |first2=Osman |last3=Taspınar |first3=Suleyman |title=A Dynamic Spatiotemporal Stochastic Volatility Model with an Application to Environmental Risks |journal=Econometrics and Statistics |date=2023 |doi=10.1016/j.ecosta.2023.11.002 |arxiv=2211.03178 |s2cid=253384426 }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Spatial heterogeneity#Law of geography|Spatial heterogeneity]]: Geographic variables exhibit uncontrolled variance.<ref name="Goodchild1" /><ref name="Zou2022">{{cite journal |last1=Zou |first1=Muquan |last2=Wang |first2=Lizhen |last3=Wu |first3=Ping |last4=Tran |first4=Vanha |title=Mining Type-β Co-Location Patterns on Closeness Centrality in Spatial Data Sets |journal=ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. |date=23 July 2022 |volume=11 |issue=8 |page=418 |doi=10.3390/ijgi11080418 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Zhang2023">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yu |last2=Sheng |first2=Wu |last3=Zhao |first3=Zhiyuan |last4=Yang |first4=Xiping |last5=Fang |first5=Zhixiang |title=An urban crowd flow model integrating geographic characteristics |journal=Scientific Reports |date=30 January 2023 |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=1695 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-29000-5|pmid=36717687 |pmc=9886992 }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* [[Spatial heterogeneity#Law of geography|Spatial heterogeneity]]: Geographic variables exhibit uncontrolled variance.<ref name="Goodchild1" /><ref name="Zou2022">{{cite journal |last1=Zou |first1=Muquan |last2=Wang |first2=Lizhen |last3=Wu |first3=Ping |last4=Tran |first4=Vanha |title=Mining Type-β Co-Location Patterns on Closeness Centrality in Spatial Data Sets |journal=ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. |date=23 July 2022 |volume=11 |issue=8 |page=418 |doi=10.3390/ijgi11080418 |doi-access=free<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |bibcode=2022IJGI...11..418Z</ins> }}</ref><ref name="Zhang2023">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yu |last2=Sheng |first2=Wu |last3=Zhao |first3=Zhiyuan |last4=Yang |first4=Xiping |last5=Fang |first5=Zhixiang |title=An urban crowd flow model integrating geographic characteristics |journal=Scientific Reports |date=30 January 2023 |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=1695 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-29000-5|pmid=36717687 |pmc=9886992<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |bibcode=2023NatSR..13.1695Z</ins> }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* The uncertainty principle: "That the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."<ref name="Goodchild1"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* The uncertainty principle: "That the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."<ref name="Goodchild1"/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 124:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 124:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>File:Gare du Nord USFRT (Paris Metro).png|[[Transportation geography]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>File:Gare du Nord USFRT (Paris Metro).png|[[Transportation geography]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>File:Tourists-2.jpg|[[Tourism geography]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>File:Tourists-2.jpg|[[Tourism geography]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>File:<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">New</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">York-Jan2005</del>.jpg|[[Urban geography]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>File:<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Empire State Building </ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Flickr id 22550357694</ins>.jpg|[[Urban geography]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div></gallery></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div></gallery></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 148:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 148:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>File:Example_krig.png|[[Spatial analysis]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>File:Example_krig.png|[[Spatial analysis]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>File:Sample of time geographical description.png|[[Time geography]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>File:Sample of time geographical description.png|[[Time geography]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>File:Delaunay-Triangulation.svg|[[Quantitative geography]]</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div></gallery></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div></gallery></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 211:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 210:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Geographers employ interviews to gather data and acquire valuable understandings from individuals or groups regarding their encounters, outlooks, and opinions concerning spatial phenomena.<ref name="Dixon1">{{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=C. |last2=Leach |first2=B. |title=Questionnaires and Interviews in Geographical Research |date=1977 |publisher=Geo Abstracts |isbn=0-902246-97-6 |url=https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/18-questionnaires-and-interviews.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Dixon2">{{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=Chris |last2=Leach |first2=Bridget |title=Survey Research in Underdeveloped Countries |date=1984 |isbn=0-86094-135-3 |url=https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/39-survey-research-in-underdeveloped-countries.pdf}}</ref> Interviews can be carried out through various mediums, including face-to-face interactions, phone conversations, online platforms, or written exchanges.<ref name="DeLyser1" /> Geographers typically adopt a structured or semi-structured approach during interviews involving specific questions or discussion points when utilized for research purposes.<ref name="Dixon1" /> These questions are designed to extract focused information about the research topic while being flexible enough to allow participants to express their experiences and viewpoints, such as through open-ended questions.<ref name="Dixon1" /></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Geographers employ interviews to gather data and acquire valuable understandings from individuals or groups regarding their encounters, outlooks, and opinions concerning spatial phenomena.<ref name="Dixon1">{{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=C. |last2=Leach |first2=B. |title=Questionnaires and Interviews in Geographical Research |date=1977 |publisher=Geo Abstracts |isbn=0-902246-97-6 |url=https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/18-questionnaires-and-interviews.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Dixon2">{{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=Chris |last2=Leach |first2=Bridget |title=Survey Research in Underdeveloped Countries |date=1984 |isbn=0-86094-135-3 |url=https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/39-survey-research-in-underdeveloped-countries.pdf}}</ref> Interviews can be carried out through various mediums, including face-to-face interactions, phone conversations, online platforms, or written exchanges.<ref name="DeLyser1" /> Geographers typically adopt a structured or semi-structured approach during interviews involving specific questions or discussion points when utilized for research purposes.<ref name="Dixon1" /> These questions are designed to extract focused information about the research topic while being flexible enough to allow participants to express their experiences and viewpoints, such as through open-ended questions.<ref name="Dixon1" /></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>== <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">History</del> ==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>== <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Origin and history</ins> ==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Main|History of geography}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Main|History of geography}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 229:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 228:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Abu Rayhan Biruni]] (976–1048) first described a polar equi-[[azimuthal equidistant projection]] of the [[celestial sphere]].<ref name="King1">{{Cite book |last=King |first=David A. |url=http://qisar.fssr.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf |title=Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, genomics and timekeeping |work=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-203-71184-2 |editor-last=Rashed |editor-first=Roshdi |volume=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111191313/http://qisar.fssr.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf |archive-date=11 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the [[Indian subcontinent]]. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]]. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the [[valley]]s, and expanse of the [[horizon]]. He also discussed [[human geography]] and the [[planetary habitability]] of the Earth. He also calculated the [[latitude]] of Kath, [[Khwarezm]], using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex [[Geodesy|geodesic]] equation to accurately compute the [[Earth's circumference]], which was close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.<ref name="Aber1">{{Cite web |last=Aber |first=James Sandusky |date=2003 |title=Abu Rayhan al-Biruni |url=http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811024630/http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm |archive-date=11 August 2011 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=academic.emporia.edu |publisher=[[Emporia State University]] }}</ref> His estimate of 6,339.9&nbsp;km for the [[Earth radius]] was only 16.8&nbsp;km less than the modern value of 6,356.7&nbsp;km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, [[al-Biruni]] developed a new method of using [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] calculations based on the angle between a [[plain]] and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.<ref name="Goodman1">{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Lenn Evan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6x-pcqMicC |title=Avicenna |publisher=Routledge |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |location=Great Britain |quote=It was Biruni, not Avicenna, who found a way for a single man, at a single moment, to measure the earth's circumference, by trigonometric calculations based on angles measured from a mountaintop and the plain beneath it – thus improving on Eratosthenes' method of sighting the sun simultaneously from two different sites, applied in the ninth century by astronomers of the Khalif al-Ma'mun. |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416171106/https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6x-pcqMicC |url-status=live }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[Abu Rayhan Biruni]] (976–1048) first described a polar equi-[[azimuthal equidistant projection]] of the [[celestial sphere]].<ref name="King1">{{Cite book |last=King |first=David A. |url=http://qisar.fssr.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf |title=Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, genomics and timekeeping |work=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-203-71184-2 |editor-last=Rashed |editor-first=Roshdi |volume=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111191313/http://qisar.fssr.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf |archive-date=11 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the [[Indian subcontinent]]. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]]. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the [[valley]]s, and expanse of the [[horizon]]. He also discussed [[human geography]] and the [[planetary habitability]] of the Earth. He also calculated the [[latitude]] of Kath, [[Khwarezm]], using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex [[Geodesy|geodesic]] equation to accurately compute the [[Earth's circumference]], which was close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.<ref name="Aber1">{{Cite web |last=Aber |first=James Sandusky |date=2003 |title=Abu Rayhan al-Biruni |url=http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811024630/http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm |archive-date=11 August 2011 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=academic.emporia.edu |publisher=[[Emporia State University]] }}</ref> His estimate of 6,339.9&nbsp;km for the [[Earth radius]] was only 16.8&nbsp;km less than the modern value of 6,356.7&nbsp;km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, [[al-Biruni]] developed a new method of using [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] calculations based on the angle between a [[plain]] and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.<ref name="Goodman1">{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Lenn Evan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6x-pcqMicC |title=Avicenna |publisher=Routledge |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-01929-3 |location=Great Britain |quote=It was Biruni, not Avicenna, who found a way for a single man, at a single moment, to measure the earth's circumference, by trigonometric calculations based on angles measured from a mountaintop and the plain beneath it – thus improving on Eratosthenes' method of sighting the sun simultaneously from two different sites, applied in the ninth century by astronomers of the Khalif al-Ma'mun. |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416171106/https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6x-pcqMicC |url-status=live }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Geographia Generalis 1733 Figure 30.jpg|thumb| Map of southern Atlantic ocean from 1733 edition of the ''[[Geographia Generalis]]'']]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The European [[Age of Discovery]] during the 16th and the 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as [[Christopher Columbus]], [[Marco Polo]], and [[James Cook]] revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. In 1650, the first edition of the ''[[Geographia Generalis]]'' was published by [[Bernhardus Varenius]], which was later edited and republished by others including [[Isaac Newton]].<ref name="Baker1955">{{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=J. N. L. |title=The Geography of Bernhard Varenius |journal=Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers) |date=1955 |volume=21 |pages=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">51-60</del> |doi=10.2307/621272}}</ref><ref name="Warntz1989">{{cite journal |last1=Warntz |first1=William |title=Newton, the Newtonians, and the Geographia Generalis Varenii |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=1989 |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">165-191</del> |doi=10.2307/621272 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2563251 |access-date=9 June 2024}}</ref> This textbook sought to integrate new scientific discoveries and principles into classical geography and approach the discipline like the other sciences emerging, and is seen by some as the division between ancient and modern geography in the West.<ref name="Baker1955" /><ref name="Warntz1989" /> </div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The European [[Age of Discovery]] during the 16th and the 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as [[Christopher Columbus]], [[Marco Polo]], and [[James Cook]] revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. In 1650, the first edition of the ''[[Geographia Generalis]]'' was published by [[Bernhardus Varenius]], which was later edited and republished by others including [[Isaac Newton]].<ref name="Baker1955">{{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=J. N. L. |title=The Geography of Bernhard Varenius |journal=Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers) |date=1955 |volume<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">=21 |issue</ins>=21 |pages=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">51–60</ins> |doi=10.2307/621272<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|jstor=621272 </ins>}}</ref><ref name="Warntz1989">{{cite journal |last1=Warntz |first1=William |title=Newton, the Newtonians, and the Geographia Generalis Varenii |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=1989 |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">165–191</ins> |doi=10.2307/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">621272 |jstor=</ins>621272 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2563251 |access-date=9 June 2024}}</ref> This textbook sought to integrate new scientific discoveries and principles into classical geography and approach the discipline like the other sciences emerging, and is seen by some as the division between ancient and modern geography in the West.<ref name="Baker1955" /><ref name="Warntz1989" /> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The ''Geographia Generalis'' contained both theoretical background and practical applications related to ship navigation.<ref name="Warntz1989" /> The remaining problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. While the problem of latitude was solved long ago, but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridians should be was only part of the problem. It was left to [[John Harrison]] to solve it by inventing the chronometer [[Harrison Number Four|H-4]] in 1760, and later in 1884 for the [[International Meridian Conference]] to adopt by convention the [[Greenwich meridian]] as zero meridians.<ref name="Aber1" /></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The ''Geographia Generalis'' contained both theoretical background and practical applications related to ship navigation.<ref name="Warntz1989" /> The remaining problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. While the problem of latitude was solved long ago, but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridians should be was only part of the problem. It was left to [[John Harrison]] to solve it by inventing the chronometer [[Harrison Number Four|H-4]] in 1760, and later in 1884 for the [[International Meridian Conference]] to adopt by convention the [[Greenwich meridian]] as zero meridians.<ref name="Aber1" /></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete [[List of academic disciplines|academic discipline]], and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and [[Berlin]]). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century, with the foundations of the [[Société de Géographie]] in 1821, the [[Royal Geographical Society]] in 1830, [[Russian Geographical Society]] in 1845, [[American Geographical Society]] in 1851, and the [[National Geographic Society]] in 1888. The influence of [[Immanuel Kant]], [[Alexander von Humboldt]], [[Carl Ritter]], and [[Paul Vidal de la Blache]] can be seen as a major turning point in geography from philosophy to an academic subject.<ref name="Societe1">{{Cite web |last=Société de Géographie |date=2016 |title=Société de Géographie, Paris, France |trans-title=Who are we ? – Society of Geography |url=http://www.socgeo.org/la-societe/qui-sommes-nous |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106113117/http://www.socgeo.org/la-societe/qui-sommes-nous/ |archive-date=6 November 2016 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=socgeo.com |publisher=Société de Géographie |language=fr }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.rgs.org/about/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018192946/http://www.rgs.org/AboutUs/About%2Bus.htm |archive-date=18 October 2016 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=rgs.org |publisher=[[Royal Geographical Society]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Русское Географическое Общество (основано в 1845 г.) |trans-title=Russian Geographical Society |url=https://www.rgo.ru/ru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120524183911/http://www.rgo.org.ru/ |archive-date=24 May 2012 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=rgo.ru |publisher=[[Russian Geographical Society]] |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://americangeo.org/history/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017130118/http://americangeo.org/history/ |archive-date=17 October 2016 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=amergeog.org |publisher=The American Geographical Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=National Geographic Society |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/io/unesco/members/48805.htm |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=state.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of State |archive-date=23 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223031540/https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/io/unesco/members/48805.htm |url-status=live }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete [[List of academic disciplines|academic discipline]], and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and [[Berlin]]). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century, with the foundations of the [[Société de Géographie]] in 1821, the [[Royal Geographical Society]] in 1830, [[Russian Geographical Society]] in 1845, [[American Geographical Society]] in 1851,<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> the [[Royal Danish Geographical Society]] in 1876</ins> and the [[National Geographic Society]] in 1888.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref name="t118">{{cite book | last=Livingstone | first=David N. | last2=Withers | first2=Charles W. J. | title=Geographies of Nineteenth-Century Science | publisher=University of Chicago Press | publication-place=Chicago ; London | date=2011-07-15 | isbn=978-0-226-48726-7 | page=29}}</ref></ins> The influence of [[Immanuel Kant]], [[Alexander von Humboldt]], [[Carl Ritter]], and [[Paul Vidal de la Blache]] can be seen as a major turning point in geography from philosophy to an academic subject.<ref name="Societe1">{{Cite web |last=Société de Géographie |date=2016 |title=Société de Géographie, Paris, France |trans-title=Who are we ? – Society of Geography |url=http://www.socgeo.org/la-societe/qui-sommes-nous |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106113117/http://www.socgeo.org/la-societe/qui-sommes-nous/ |archive-date=6 November 2016 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=socgeo.com |publisher=Société de Géographie |language=fr }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.rgs.org/about/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018192946/http://www.rgs.org/AboutUs/About%2Bus.htm |archive-date=18 October 2016 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=rgs.org |publisher=[[Royal Geographical Society]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Русское Географическое Общество (основано в 1845 г.) |trans-title=Russian Geographical Society |url=https://www.rgo.ru/ru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120524183911/http://www.rgo.org.ru/ |archive-date=24 May 2012 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=rgo.ru |publisher=[[Russian Geographical Society]] |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://americangeo.org/history/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017130118/http://americangeo.org/history/ |archive-date=17 October 2016 |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=amergeog.org |publisher=The American Geographical Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=National Geographic Society |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/io/unesco/members/48805.htm |access-date=10 November 2016 |website=state.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of State |archive-date=23 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223031540/https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/io/unesco/members/48805.htm |url-status=live <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</ref> Geographers such as [[Richard Hartshorne]] and [[Joseph Kerski]] have regarded both Humboldt and Ritter as the founders of modern geography, as Humboldt and Ritter were the first to establish geography as an independent scientific discipline.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hartshorne |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Hartshorne |date=1939 |title=The pre-classical period of modern geography |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00045603909357282 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=35–48 |doi=10.1080/00045603909357282 |via=Taylor & Francis}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kerski |first=Joseph J. |author-link=Joseph Kerski |title=Interpreting Our World: 100 Discoveries That Revolutionized Geography |publisher=ABC-Clio |year=2016 |isbn=9781610699204 |pages=284</ins>}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Waldo Tobler 2007.jpg|thumb|upright|Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Waldo Tobler 2007.jpg|thumb|upright|Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 240:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 240:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Notable geographers==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Notable geographers==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Main|List of geographers|List of Graeco-Roman geographers}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Main|List of geographers|List of Graeco-Roman geographers}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Ptolemy 16century.jpg|thumb|upright|Ptolemy "the Alexandrian", as depicted in a 16th-century engraving]]</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Gerardus Mercator3.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gerardus Mercator]]]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Gerardus Mercator3.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gerardus Mercator]]]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:KwanMeiPo.jpg|thumb|upright|Mei-Po Kwan]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:KwanMeiPo.jpg|thumb|upright|Mei-Po Kwan]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Alexander von Humboldt]] (1769–1859)&nbsp;– published ''[[Cosmos (Humboldt)|Cosmos]]''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> and</del> founder of the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">sub-field</del> biogeography.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* [[Alexander von Humboldt]] (1769–1859)&nbsp;– published ''[[Cosmos (Humboldt)|Cosmos]]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</ins>'' founder of the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">subfield</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>biogeography<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]], and established geography as an independent scientific discipline</ins>.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Anne Kelly Knowles]] (Born 1957)&nbsp;– influential in the use of GIS and geographic methods in History.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [[Anne Kelly Knowles]] (Born 1957)&nbsp;– influential in the use of GIS and geographic methods in History.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Bernhardus Varenius]] (1622–1650)– German geographer and author of ''[[Geographia Generalis]]''</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [[Bernhardus Varenius]] (1622–1650)– German geographer and author of ''[[Geographia Generalis]]''</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Carl O. Sauer]] (1889–1975)&nbsp;– cultural geographer.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [[Carl O. Sauer]] (1889–1975)&nbsp;– cultural geographer.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Carl Ritter]] (1779–1859)&nbsp;– occupied the first chair of geography at <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Berlin</del> University.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* [[Carl Ritter]] (1779–1859)&nbsp;– occupied the first chair of geography<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</ins> at <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the [[Humboldt</ins> University<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> of Berlin|University of Berlin]], and established geography as an independent scientific discipline</ins>.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Cynthia Brewer]] &nbsp;– cartographic theorist that created the web application [[ColorBrewer]].</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [[Cynthia Brewer]] &nbsp;– cartographic theorist that created the web application [[ColorBrewer]].</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Dana Tomlin]] &nbsp;– originator of map algebra</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [[Dana Tomlin]] &nbsp;– originator of map algebra</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 313:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 312:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Main|Geology}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Main|Geology}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Cycle of rocks 2.png|thumb|The [[rock cycle]] shows the relationship between [[igneous]], [[sedimentary]], and [[metamorphic]] [[rock (geology)|rock]]s.]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Cycle of rocks 2.png|thumb|The [[rock cycle]] shows the relationship between [[igneous]], [[sedimentary]], and [[metamorphic]] [[rock (geology)|rock]]s.]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The discipline of geography, especially physical geography, and geology have significant overlap. In the past, the two have often shared academic departments at universities, a point that has led to conflict over resources.<ref name="Smith2">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Neil |title="Academic War Over the Field of Geography": The Elimination of Geography at Harvard, 1947-1951 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=1987 |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=155–172 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1987.tb00151.x |jstor=2562763 |s2cid=145064363 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2562763 |access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> Both disciplines do seek to understand the [[rocks]] on the Earth's surface and the processes that change them over time. Geology employs many of the tools and techniques of technical geographers, such as GIS and remote sensing to aid in [[geological mapping]].<ref name="Compton1">{{Cite book |isbn=978-0-471-82902-7 |author= Compton, Robert R. |year= 1985 |publisher= Wiley |location= New York |title= Geology in the field}}</ref> However, geology includes research that goes beyond the spatial component, such as the chemical analysis of rocks and [[biogeochemistry]].<ref name="Gorham 1">{{Cite journal |last=Gorham |first=Eville |date=1 January 1991 |title=Biogeochemistry: its origins and development |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00002942 |journal=Biogeochemistry |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=199–239 |doi=10.1007/BF00002942 |s2cid=128563314 |issn=1573-515X}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The discipline of geography, especially physical geography, and geology have significant overlap. In the past, the two have often shared academic departments at universities, a point that has led to conflict over resources.<ref name="Smith2">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Neil |title="Academic War Over the Field of Geography": The Elimination of Geography at Harvard, 1947-1951 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=1987 |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=155–172 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1987.tb00151.x |jstor=2562763 |s2cid=145064363 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2562763 |access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> Both disciplines do seek to understand the [[rocks]] on the Earth's surface and the processes that change them over time. Geology employs many of the tools and techniques of technical geographers, such as GIS and remote sensing to aid in [[geological mapping]].<ref name="Compton1">{{Cite book |isbn=978-0-471-82902-7 |author= Compton, Robert R. |year= 1985 |publisher= Wiley |location= New York |title= Geology in the field}}</ref> However, geology includes research that goes beyond the spatial component, such as the chemical analysis of rocks and [[biogeochemistry]].<ref name="Gorham 1">{{Cite journal |last=Gorham |first=Eville |date=1 January 1991 |title=Biogeochemistry: its origins and development |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00002942 |journal=Biogeochemistry |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=199–239 |doi=10.1007/BF00002942<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |bibcode=1991Biogc..13..199G</ins> |s2cid=128563314 |issn=1573-515X}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===History===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===History===</div></td> </tr> </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Latest revision as of 09:46, 10 November 2024</h2> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of lands and inhabitants of Earth</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Geography_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Geography (disambiguation)">Geography (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Geo (disambiguation)">Geo (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum,_by_Abraham_Ortelius,_World,_1572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/175px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/263px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/350px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography#Greco-Roman_world" title="History of geography">Graeco-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (soil study)">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Theoretical Approaches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">Geographers</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_sidebar" title="Template talk:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Geography</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">γεωγραφία</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">geōgraphía</i></span>; combining <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">gê</i></span> 'Earth' and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">gráphō</i></span> 'write') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-intro1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">its human and natural complexities</a>—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> can be applied more broadly to other <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">celestial bodies</a> in the field of <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">planetary science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burt_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geography has been called "a bridge between <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> disciplines."<sup id="cite_ref-Sala1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> of Cyrene, who may have coined the term "geographia" (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 276 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 195/194 BC</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-Roller_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roller-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first recorded use of the word <a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">γεωγραφία</a> was as the title of a book by Greek scholar <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Ptolemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> (100 – 170 AD).<sup id="cite_ref-intro1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work created the so-called "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography, which included "Ptolemaic cartographic theory."<sup id="cite_ref-Brentjes2009_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brentjes2009-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the concepts of geography (such as <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>) date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurt-2009_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurt-2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">history of geography</a> as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Thrift1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thrift1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kent1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kent1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tuan1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tuan2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Castree1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castree1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gregory1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregory1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches.<sup id="cite_ref-Traditions1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sala1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tambassi_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tambassi-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Techniques employed can generally be broken down into <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">quantitative</a><sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">qualitative</a><sup id="cite_ref-RyanBurns1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> approaches, with many studies taking <a href="/wiki/Mixed-methods_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-methods research">mixed-methods</a> approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-Diriwächter1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diriwächter1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common techniques include <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interview" title="Interview">interviews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamentals">Fundamentals</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physical_World_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/390px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/585px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/780px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="973" /></a><figcaption>Physical map of Earth</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Map_(political).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/World_Map_%28political%29.svg/390px-World_Map_%28political%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/World_Map_%28political%29.svg/585px-World_Map_%28political%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/World_Map_%28political%29.svg/780px-World_Map_%28political%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="975" /></a><figcaption>Political map of Earth</figcaption></figure> <p>Geography is a systematic study of the Earth (other celestial bodies are specified, such as "geography of Mars", or given another name, such as <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Mars">areography</a> in the case of Mars), its features, and phenomena that take place on it.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For something to fall into the domain of geography, it generally needs some sort of spatial component that can be placed on a <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">map</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">coordinates</a>, place names, or <a href="/wiki/Address" title="Address">addresses</a>. This has led to geography being associated with <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> and place names. Although many geographers are trained in <a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">toponymy</a> and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. <a href="/wiki/Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographers">Geographers</a> study the Earth's spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes, and features as well as the interaction of humans and their <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, plants, and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and their spatial patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-Hornby11_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hornby11-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Names of places...are not geography...To know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word, Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/William_Hughes_(geographer)" title="William Hughes (geographer)">William Hughes</a>, 1863</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into three main branches: <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical geography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sala1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hough1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hough1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human geography largely focuses on the <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built environment</a> and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.<sup id="cite_ref-Hough1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hough1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical geography examines the natural environment and how <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, climate, <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, water, and <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a> produce and interact.<sup id="cite_ref-Cotterill_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cotterill-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between these approaches led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated geography</a>, which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools and techniques used by geographers, such as remote sensing, cartography, and geographic information system.<sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_concepts">Key concepts</h3></div><p> Narrowing down geography to a few key concepts is extremely challenging, and subject to tremendous debate within the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-KeyConcepts2014_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KeyConcepts2014-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one attempt, the 1st edition of the book "Key Concepts in Geography" broke down this into chapters focusing on "Space," "Place," "Time," "Scale," and "Landscape."<sup id="cite_ref-KeyConcepts2003_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KeyConcepts2003-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2nd edition of the book expanded on these key concepts by adding "Environmental systems," "Social Systems," "Nature," "<a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a>," "Development," and "Risk," demonstrating how challenging narrowing the field can be.<sup id="cite_ref-KeyConcepts2014_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KeyConcepts2014-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg/220px-17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg/330px-17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg/440px-17th_Century_map_of_Pembrokeshire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3204" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Maps, like this 17th Century depiction of <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire" title="Pembrokeshire">Pembrokeshire</a>, are a central element in the study of geography.</figcaption></figure><p>Another approach used extensively in teaching geography are the <a href="/wiki/Five_themes_of_geography" title="Five themes of geography">Five themes of geography</a> established by "Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools," published jointly by the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_American_Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of American Geographers">Association of American Geographers</a> in 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-Guidelines1984_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guidelines1984-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Natoli1994_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Natoli1994-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These themes are Location, place, relationships within places (often summarized as Human-Environment Interaction), movement, and regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Natoli1994_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Natoli1994-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brown2015_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2015-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The five themes of geography have shaped how American education approaches the topic in the years since.<sup id="cite_ref-Natoli1994_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Natoli1994-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brown2015_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2015-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Space">Space</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3D_coordinate_system.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/220px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/330px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/3D_coordinate_system.svg/440px-3D_coordinate_system.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="487" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption>A right-handed three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Cartesian coordinate system</a> used to indicate positions in space</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography.<sup id="cite_ref-GeographyPerspective1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeographyPerspective1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">United States National Research Council</a>, 1997</cite></div></blockquote> <p>For something to exist in the realm of geography, it must be able to be described spatially.<sup id="cite_ref-GeographyPerspective1_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeographyPerspective1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Matthews1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, space is the most fundamental concept at the foundation of geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Thrift1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thrift1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kent1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kent1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept is so basic, that geographers often have difficulty defining exactly what it is. <a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">Absolute space</a> is the exact site, or spatial coordinates, of objects, persons, places, or phenomena under investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Thrift1_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thrift1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> We exist in space.<sup id="cite_ref-Tuan1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Absolute space leads to the view of the world as a photograph, with everything frozen in place when the coordinates were recorded. Today, geographers are trained to recognize the world as a dynamic space where all processes interact and take place, rather than a static image on a map.<sup id="cite_ref-Thrift1_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thrift1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chen1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Place">Place</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg/220px-Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg/330px-Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg/440px-Yi-Fu_Tuan-Festival_international_de_g%C3%A9ographie_2012_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2194" data-file-height="2551" /></a><figcaption>Yi-Fu Tuan, geographer who foregrounded the importance of language in the making of place.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Location" title="Location">Location</a>, <a href="/wiki/Place_identity" title="Place identity">Place identity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_place" title="Sense of place">Sense of place</a></div> <p>Place is one of the most complex and important terms in geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Tuan1_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tuan2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Castree1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castree1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gregory1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregory1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In human geography, place is the synthesis of the coordinates on the Earth's surface, the activity and use that occurs, has occurred, and will occur at the coordinates, and the meaning ascribed to the space by human individuals and groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Matthews1_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Castree1_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castree1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be extraordinarily complex, as different spaces may have different uses at different times and mean different things to different people. In physical geography, a place includes all of the physical phenomena that occur in space, including the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gregory1_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregory1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Places do not exist in a vacuum and instead have complex spatial relationships with each other, and place is concerned how a location is situated in relation to all other locations.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a discipline then, the term place in geography includes all spatial phenomena occurring at a location, the diverse uses and meanings humans ascribe to that location, and how that location impacts and is impacted by all other locations on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Castree1_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castree1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gregory1_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregory1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one of <a href="/wiki/Yi-Fu_Tuan" title="Yi-Fu Tuan">Yi-Fu Tuan</a>'s papers, he explains that in his view, geography is the study of Earth as a home for humanity, and thus place and the complex meaning behind the term is central to the discipline of geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Tuan2_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Time">Time</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A space-time cube is a three-axis graph where one axis represents the time dimension and the other axes represent two spatial dimensions" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/220px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/330px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/440px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Examples of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_language" title="Visual language">visual language</a> of time geography: space-time cube, path, prism, bundle, and other concepts.</figcaption></figure> <p>Time is usually thought to be within the domain of <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, however, it is of significant concern in the discipline of geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Thrift2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thrift2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thornes1_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornes1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In physics, space and time are not separated, and are combined into the concept of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Galison_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galison-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geography is subject to the laws of physics, and in studying things that occur in space, time must be considered. Time in geography is more than just the historical record of events that occurred at various discrete coordinates; but also includes modeling the dynamic movement of people, organisms, and things through space.<sup id="cite_ref-Tuan1_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Time facilitates movement through space, ultimately allowing things to flow through a system.<sup id="cite_ref-Thrift2_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thrift2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of time an individual, or group of people, spends in a place will often shape their attachment and perspective to that place.<sup id="cite_ref-Tuan1_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Time constrains the possible paths that can be taken through space, given a starting point, possible routes, and rate of travel.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visualizing time over space is challenging in terms of cartography, and includes Space-Prism, advanced 3D geovisualizations, and <a href="/wiki/Animated_mapping" title="Animated mapping">animated maps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miller1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chen1_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scale">Scale</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Scale_(geography)" title="Scale (geography)">Scale (geography)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scale_(ratio)" title="Scale (ratio)">Scale (ratio)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scale_(map)" title="Scale (map)">Scale (map)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_scale_-_8km,_5mi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Map_scale_-_8km%2C_5mi.png/290px-Map_scale_-_8km%2C_5mi.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Map_scale_-_8km%2C_5mi.png 1.5x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="125" /></a><figcaption>A graphical or bar scale. A map would also usually give its scale numerically ("1:50,000", for instance, means that one cm on the map represents 50,000 cm of real space, which is 500 meters).</figcaption></figure> <p>Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a distance measured on the map and the corresponding distance as measured on the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-Burt_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herod_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herod-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept is fundamental to the discipline of geography, not just cartography, in that phenomena being investigated appear different depending on the scale used.<sup id="cite_ref-Arbia1_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arbia1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SmithLaws_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SmithLaws-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scale is the frame that geographers use to measure space, and ultimately to understand a place.<sup id="cite_ref-Herod_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herod-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laws_of_geography">Laws of geography<span class="anchor" id="Laws"></span></h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography#Laws_of_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative geography § Laws of geography</a></div><p>During the quantitative revolution, geography shifted to an empirical law-making (<a href="/wiki/Nomothetic" title="Nomothetic">nomothetic</a>) approach.<sup id="cite_ref-DeLyser1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeLyser1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yano1_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yano1-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several <b>laws of geography</b> have been proposed since then, most notably by <a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a> and can be viewed as a product of the quantitative revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, some dispute the entire concept of laws in geography and the social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler3_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild1_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These criticisms have been addressed by Tobler and others, such as <a href="/wiki/Michael_Frank_Goodchild" title="Michael Frank Goodchild">Michael Frank Goodchild</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler3_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild1_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is an ongoing source of debate in geography and is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon. Several laws have been proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most generally accepted in geography. Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a first invites a second, and many have proposed themselves as that. It has also been proposed that Tobler's first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild1_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few of the proposed laws of geography are below: </p><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">Tobler's first law of geography</a>: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant."<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler3_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild1_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_second_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's second law of geography">Tobler's second law of geography</a>: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler3_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler4_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbia%27s_law_of_geography" title="Arbia's law of geography">Arbia's law of geography</a>: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."<sup id="cite_ref-Arbia1_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arbia1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler3_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SmithLaws_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SmithLaws-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hecht1_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hecht1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Otto1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otto1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_heterogeneity#Law_of_geography" title="Spatial heterogeneity">Spatial heterogeneity</a>: Geographic variables exhibit uncontrolled variance.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild1_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zou2022_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zou2022-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhang2023_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang2023-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The uncertainty principle: "That the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."<sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild1_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Additionally, several variations or amendments to these laws exist within the literature, although not as well supported. For example, one paper proposed an amended version of Tobler's first law of geography, referred to in the text as the <i>Tobler–von Thünen law</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Walker1_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which states: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things, <em>as a consequence of accessibility</em>."<sup id="cite_ref-Note01_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Note01-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-Walker1_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sub-disciplines">Sub-disciplines</h2></div> <p>Geography is a branch of inquiry that focuses on spatial information on Earth. It is an extremely broad topic and can be broken down multiple ways.<sup id="cite_ref-Tambassi_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tambassi-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been several approaches to doing this spanning at least several centuries, including "four traditions of geography" and into distinct branches.<sup id="cite_ref-cave1_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cave1-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Traditions1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Four traditions of geography are often used to divide the different historical approach theories geographers have taken to the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-Traditions1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, geography's branches describe contemporary applied geographical approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-Sala1_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_traditions">Four traditions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Four_traditions_of_geography" title="Four traditions of geography">Four traditions of geography</a></div> <p>Geography is an extremely broad field. Because of this, many view the various definitions of geography proposed over the decades as inadequate. To address this, <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_D._Pattison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William D. Pattison (page does not exist)">William D. Pattison</a> proposed the concept of the "Four traditions of Geography" in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-Traditions1_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Traditions2_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions2-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Traditions3_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions3-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These traditions are the <a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial</a> or Locational Tradition, the Man-Land or Human-Environment Interaction Tradition (sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Area_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Area Studies">Area Studies</a> or <a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a> Tradition, and the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth Science">Earth Science</a> Tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Traditions1_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Traditions2_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions2-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Traditions3_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions3-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These concepts are broad sets of geography philosophies bound together within the discipline. They are one of many ways geographers organize the major sets of thoughts and philosophies within the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-Traditions1_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Traditions2_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions2-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Traditions3_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditions3-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Branches">Branches</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main page: <a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_geography" title="Category:Branches of geography">Category:Branches of geography</a></div> <p>In another approach to the abovementioned four traditions, geography is organized into applied branches.<sup id="cite_ref-Sala2_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dada1_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dada1-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems" title="Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems">Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems</a> organizes geography into the three categories of <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical geography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sala1_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ormeling1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ormeling1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sala2_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tambassi_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tambassi-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some publications limit the number of branches to physical and human, describing them as the principal branches.<sup id="cite_ref-Matthews1_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographers rarely focus on just one of these topics, often using one as their primary focus and then incorporating data and methods from the other branches. Often, geographers are asked to describe what they do by individuals outside the discipline<sup id="cite_ref-Tuan2_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuan2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are likely to identify closely with a specific branch, or sub-branch when describing themselves to lay people. Human geography studies people and their communities, cultures, economies, and environmental interactions by studying their relations with and across space and place.<sup id="cite_ref-Matthews1_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical geography is concerned with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geosphere" title="Geosphere">geosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Matthews1_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthews1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a> is interested in studying and applying techniques and methods to store, process, analyze, visualize, and use spatial data.<sup id="cite_ref-Dada1_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dada1-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the newest of the branches, the most controversial, and often other terms are used in the literature to describe the emerging category. These branches use similar geographic philosophies, concepts, and tools and often overlap significantly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Physical">Physical</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical geography</a></div> <p>Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">pedosphere</a>, and global <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> patterns (<a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>). Physical geography is the study of earth's seasons, <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, streams, landforms, and oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-Lockyer1_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lockyer1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical geographers will often work in identifying and monitoring the use of natural resources. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerycaption">Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 181.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 179.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Biogeography"><img alt="Biogeography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg/269px-L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg/403px-L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg/537px-L%C3%ADnea_de_Wallace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="488" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 160px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Climatology and meteorology"><img alt="Climatology and meteorology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/273px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG" decoding="async" width="182" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/409px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/545px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2004" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 162px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:90_mile_beach.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coastal geography"><img alt="Coastal geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/90_mile_beach.jpg/240px-90_mile_beach.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/90_mile_beach.jpg/360px-90_mile_beach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/90_mile_beach.jpg/480px-90_mile_beach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Environmental management"><img alt="Environmental management" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg/240px-Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg/360px-Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg/480px-Gavin_Power_Plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental management">Environmental management</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 206px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 204px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geomorphology"><img alt="Geomorphology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/306px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/458px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/611px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="1812" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 184px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 258.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 256.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Receding_glacier-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Glaciology"><img alt="Glaciology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/385px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="257" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/577px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/769px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="562" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 237px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 216.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 214.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meander-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hydrology and hydrography"><img alt="Hydrology and hydrography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/322px-Meander-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="215" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/483px-Meander-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/643px-Meander-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 195px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Khajuraho-landscape.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Landscape ecology"><img alt="Landscape ecology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Khajuraho-landscape.jpg/238px-Khajuraho-landscape.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Khajuraho-landscape.jpg/356px-Khajuraho-landscape.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Khajuraho-landscape.jpg/475px-Khajuraho-landscape.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 139px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:World11.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oceanography"><img alt="Oceanography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/World11.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="149" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 220px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 123.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pangea_interpretacion.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Palaeogeography"><img alt="a view of the supercontinent of pangea breaking up" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Pangea_interpretacion.png/185px-Pangea_interpretacion.png" decoding="async" width="124" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Pangea_interpretacion.png/277px-Pangea_interpretacion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Pangea_interpretacion.png/370px-Pangea_interpretacion.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="644" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 104px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 100px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 98px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_profile.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pedology"><img alt="Pedology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Soil_profile.jpg/147px-Soil_profile.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Soil_profile.jpg/221px-Soil_profile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Soil_profile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="288" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 78px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Quaternary science"><img alt="Quaternary science" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png/238px-Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png" decoding="async" width="159" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png/356px-Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png/475px-Milankovitch_Variations_sv.png 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="363" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 139px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human">Human</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></div> <p>Human geography (or anthropogeography) is a branch of geography that focuses on studying patterns and processes that shape human society.<sup id="cite_ref-HGDICT_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HGDICT-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It encompasses the human, political, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a>, social, and economic aspects. In industry, human geographers often work in city planning, public health, or business analysis. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerycaption">Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 163.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 161.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Cognitive geography"><img alt="Cognitive geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png/242px-Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png" decoding="async" width="162" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png/363px-Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png/485px-Spatial_Contextual_Awareness_Fig_2.png 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="628" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 142px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Qichwa_conchucos_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cultural geography"><img alt="Cultural geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Qichwa_conchucos_01.jpg/240px-Qichwa_conchucos_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Qichwa_conchucos_01.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 180px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 178px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pepsi_in_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Development geography"><img alt="Development geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/267px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/400px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/534px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="471" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 158px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 127.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 125.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Christaller_model_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Economic geography"><img alt="Economic geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Christaller_model_1.jpg/188px-Christaller_model_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Christaller_model_1.jpg/281px-Christaller_model_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Christaller_model_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="288" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 106px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 126px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 124px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Star_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Health geography"><img alt="Health geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/186px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="124" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/278px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/371px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 104px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Empire_1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Historical geography"><img alt="Historical geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/237px-British_Empire_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/355px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/473px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="849" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 138px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024_-_transparent,_inverted.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Internet geography"><img alt="Internet geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/180px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/270px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png/360px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent%2C_inverted.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 100px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:UN_General_Assembly.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Political geography and Geopolitics"><img alt="Political geography and Geopolitics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_General_Assembly.jpg/244px-UN_General_Assembly.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_General_Assembly.jpg/366px-UN_General_Assembly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_General_Assembly.jpg/487px-UN_General_Assembly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 143px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyramide_Comores.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Population geography or Demography"><img alt="Population geography or Demography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pyramide_Comores.PNG/260px-Pyramide_Comores.PNG" decoding="async" width="174" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pyramide_Comores.PNG/390px-Pyramide_Comores.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pyramide_Comores.PNG/520px-Pyramide_Comores.PNG 2x" data-file-width="902" data-file-height="625" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 154px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population geography</a> or <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 117.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 115.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ReligionSymbol.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Religion geography"><img alt="Religion geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ReligionSymbol.svg/173px-ReligionSymbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="116" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ReligionSymbol.svg/259px-ReligionSymbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ReligionSymbol.svg/345px-ReligionSymbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="631" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 96px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Religion_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion geography">Religion geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US-hoosier-family.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Social geography"><img alt="Social geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US-hoosier-family.jpg/240px-US-hoosier-family.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US-hoosier-family.jpg/360px-US-hoosier-family.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/US-hoosier-family.jpg/480px-US-hoosier-family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2011" data-file-height="1509" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gare_du_Nord_USFRT_(Paris_Metro).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Transportation geography"><img alt="Transportation geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Gare_du_Nord_USFRT_%28Paris_Metro%29.png/196px-Gare_du_Nord_USFRT_%28Paris_Metro%29.png" decoding="async" width="131" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Gare_du_Nord_USFRT_%28Paris_Metro%29.png 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="230" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 111px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Transportation_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation geography">Transportation geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 99.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 97.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tourists-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tourism geography"><img alt="Tourism geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Tourists-2.jpg/146px-Tourists-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Tourists-2.jpg/219px-Tourists-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Tourists-2.jpg/292px-Tourists-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="1105" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 78px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 181.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 179.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Urban geography"><img alt="Urban geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg/269px-Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg/404px-Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg/538px-Empire_State_Building_-_Flickr_id_22550357694.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 160px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban geography</a></div> </div> </li> </ul> <p>Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosophy" title="Geosophy">Geosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Technical">Technical</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></div> <p>Technical geography concerns studying and developing tools, techniques, and statistical methods employed to collect, analyze, use, and understand spatial data.<sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sala1_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sala2_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ormeling1_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ormeling1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technical geography is the most recently recognized, and controversial, of the branches. Its use dates back to 1749, when a book published by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Cave" title="Edward Cave">Edward Cave</a> organized the discipline into a section containing content such as cartographic techniques and globes.<sup id="cite_ref-cave1_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cave1-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are several other terms, often used interchangeably with technical geography to subdivide the discipline, including "techniques of geographic analysis,"<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Geographic Information Technology,"<sup id="cite_ref-intro1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Geography method's and techniques,"<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/Geographic_Information_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic Information Science">Geographic Information Science</a>,"<sup id="cite_ref-Ron1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ron1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">geoinformatics</a>," "<a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">geomatics</a>," and "information geography". There are subtle differences to each concept and term; however, technical geography is one of the broadest, is consistent with the naming convention of the other two branches, has been in use since the 1700s, and has been used by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems" title="Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems">Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems</a> to divide geography into themes.<sup id="cite_ref-Sala1_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sala2_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cave1_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cave1-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As academic fields increasingly specialize in their nature, technical geography has emerged as a branch of geography specializing in geographic methods and thought.<sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emergence of technical geography has brought new relevance to the broad discipline of geography by serving as a set of unique methods for managing the interdisciplinary nature of the phenomena under investigation. While human and physical geographers use the techniques employed by technical geographers, technical geography is more concerned with the fundamental spatial concepts and technologies than the nature of the data.<sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dada1_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dada1-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is therefore closely associated with the spatial tradition of geography while being applied to the other two major branches. A technical geographer might work as a GIS analyst, a GIS developer working to make new software tools, or create general reference maps incorporating human and natural features.<sup id="cite_ref-Kretzschmar1_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kretzschmar1-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerycaption">Technical geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geodesign"><img alt="Geodesign" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg/270px-Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg/405px-Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg/540px-Stourhead_Pantheon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 160px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 125.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 123.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geodesy"><img alt="Geodesy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png/185px-Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png" decoding="async" width="124" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png/278px-Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png/370px-Meridian_convergence_and_spehrical_excess.png 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="598" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 104px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Worldwind.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geoinformatics"><img alt="Geoinformatics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/240px-Worldwind.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/360px-Worldwind.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/480px-Worldwind.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 176.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 174.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig_4.4.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographic information science"><img alt="Geographic information science" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/262px-Fig_4.4.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/393px-Fig_4.4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/524px-Fig_4.4.png 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 155px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Survey_instruments-2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geomatics"><img alt="Geomatics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Survey_instruments-2.png/240px-Survey_instruments-2.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Survey_instruments-2.png/360px-Survey_instruments-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Survey_instruments-2.png/480px-Survey_instruments-2.png 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 140px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gislayers.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geovisualization"><img alt="Geovisualization" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/273px-Gislayers.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/410px-Gislayers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gislayers.jpg/547px-Gislayers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="657" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 162px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Statistical geography"><img alt="Statistical geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/180px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/270px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/360px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 100px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 173.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 171.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Example_krig.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Spatial analysis"><img alt="Spatial analysis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Example_krig.png/257px-Example_krig.png" decoding="async" width="172" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Example_krig.png/386px-Example_krig.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Example_krig.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 152px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 119.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 117.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Time geography"><img alt="Time geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/176px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/264px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png/352px-Sample_of_time_geographical_description.png 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 98px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Geography" title="Special:EditPage/Geography">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>All geographic research and analysis start with asking the question "where," followed by "why there." Geographers start with the fundamental assumption set forth in <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">Tobler's first law of geography</a>, that "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler2_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, maps are a key tool. Classical <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a> (GIS). </p><p>In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches: </p> <ul><li>Analytical – Asks <i>why</i> we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.</li> <li>Descriptive – Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.</li> <li>Regional – Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.</li> <li>Systematic – Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantitative_methods">Quantitative methods</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative geography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg/220px-Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg/330px-Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg/440px-Cook_chart_of_New_Zealand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1093" data-file-height="1508" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>'s 1770 chart of New Zealand</figcaption></figure> <p>Quantitative methods in geography became particularly influential in the discipline during the quantitative revolution of the 1950s and 60s.<sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These methods revitalized the discipline in many ways, allowing scientific testing of hypotheses and proposing scientific geographic theories and laws.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quantitative revolution heavily influenced and revitalized technical geography, and lead to the development of the subfield of quantitative geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quantitative_cartography">Quantitative cartography</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></div> <p>Cartography is the art, science, and technology of making maps.<sup id="cite_ref-Kainz1_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kainz1-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cartographers study the Earth's surface representation with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenks1_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenks1-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. </p><p>Cartographers must learn <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">ergonomics</a> to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively and <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behavioural psychology</a> to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a> and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">shape of the Earth</a> affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geographic_information_systems">Geographic information systems</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></div> <p>Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with storing information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-Demers1_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demers1-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of <a href="/wiki/List_of_GIS_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of GIS software">GIS software</a>. The science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyse, and predict the spatial relationships is called <i><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">geographic information science</a></i> (GISc).<sup id="cite_ref-Monmonier1_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monmonier1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Death-valley-sar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Death-valley-sar.jpg/170px-Death-valley-sar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Death-valley-sar.jpg/255px-Death-valley-sar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Death-valley-sar.jpg/340px-Death-valley-sar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="2501" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_aperture_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic aperture radar">Synthetic aperture radar</a> image of <a href="/wiki/Death_Valley" title="Death Valley">Death Valley</a> colored using <a href="/wiki/Polarimetry" title="Polarimetry">polarimetry</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Remote sensing is the art, science, and technology of obtaining information about Earth's features from measurements made at a distance.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen1_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen1-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remotely sensed data can be either passive, such as traditional <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>, or active, such as <a href="/wiki/LiDAR" class="mw-redirect" title="LiDAR">LiDAR</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen1_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen1-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A variety of platforms can be used for remote sensing, including <a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">satellite imagery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">aerial photography</a> (including consumer drones), and data obtained from hand-held sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen1_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen1-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Products from remote sensing include <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">Digital elevation model</a> and cartographic base maps. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Land_surface" class="mw-redirect" title="Land surface">land surface</a>, ocean, and atmosphere, because it: (a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), (b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, (c) allows access to distant and inaccessible sites, (d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, and (e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed independently or in conjunction with other digital data layers (e.g., in a geographic information system). Remote sensing aids in land use, land cover (LULC) mapping, by helping to determine both what is naturally occurring on a piece of land and what human activities are taking place on it.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a> deal with <a href="/wiki/Numerical_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Numerical data">quantitative data</a> analysis, specifically the application of a statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, logistics, and <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from <a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">cluster analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linear_discriminant_analysis" title="Linear discriminant analysis">linear discriminant analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-parametric_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-parametric statistics">non-parametric statistical tests</a>, and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a>, particularly for the <a href="/wiki/Interpolation" title="Interpolation">interpolation</a> (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualitative_methods">Qualitative methods</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative geography</a></div> <p>Qualitative methods in geography are descriptive rather than numerical or statistical in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RyanBurns1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeLyser1_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeLyser1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They add context to concepts, and explore human concepts like beliefs and perspective that are difficult or impossible to quantify.<sup id="cite_ref-RyanBurns1_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human geography is much more likely to employ qualitative methods than physical geography. Increasingly, technical geographers are attempting to employ GIS methods to qualitative datasets.<sup id="cite_ref-RyanBurns1_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Suchan1_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suchan1-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qualitative_cartography">Qualitative cartography</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg/300px-Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg/450px-Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg/600px-Indo-Aryan_language_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1630" /></a><figcaption>A compound chorochromatic map of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan (Indic) languages</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Qualitative cartography employs many of the same software and techniques as quantitative cartography.<sup id="cite_ref-Suchan1_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suchan1-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may be employed to inform on map practices, or to visualize perspectives and ideas that are not strictly quantitative in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Suchan1_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suchan1-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RyanBurns1_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RyanBurns1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a form of qualitative cartography is a <a href="/wiki/Chorochromatic_map" title="Chorochromatic map">Chorochromatic map</a> of nominal data, such as land cover or dominant language group in an area.<sup id="cite_ref-Brewer1994_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brewer1994-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is a <a href="/wiki/Deep_map" title="Deep map">deep map</a>, or maps that combine geography and storytelling to produce a product with greater information than a two-dimensional image of places, names, and topography.<sup id="cite_ref-Bodenhamer1_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodenhamer1-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Butts1_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butts1-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach offers more inclusive strategies than more traditional cartographic approaches for connecting the complex layers that makeup places.<sup id="cite_ref-Butts1_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butts1-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethnography">Ethnography</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></div> <p>Ethnographical research techniques are used by human geographers.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">cultural geography</a>, there is a tradition of employing <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a> techniques, also used in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and sociology. <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a> and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></div> <p>Geopoetics is an interdisciplinary approach that combines geography and <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> to explore the interconnectedness between humans, space, place, and the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Magrane1_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magrane1-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Russo1_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russo1-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geopoetics is employed as a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed methods">mixed methods</a> tool to explain the implications of geographic research.<sup id="cite_ref-Magrane2_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magrane2-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often employed to address and communicate the implications of complex topics, such as the <a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">anthropocene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dialogs1_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs1-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dialogs2_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dialogs3_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs3-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dialogs4_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs4-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dialogs5_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dialogs5-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interviews">Interviews</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></div> <p>Geographers employ interviews to gather data and acquire valuable understandings from individuals or groups regarding their encounters, outlooks, and opinions concerning spatial phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon1_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon1-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dixon2_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon2-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interviews can be carried out through various mediums, including face-to-face interactions, phone conversations, online platforms, or written exchanges.<sup id="cite_ref-DeLyser1_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeLyser1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographers typically adopt a structured or semi-structured approach during interviews involving specific questions or discussion points when utilized for research purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon1_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon1-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These questions are designed to extract focused information about the research topic while being flexible enough to allow participants to express their experiences and viewpoints, such as through open-ended questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon1_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon1-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_history">Origin and history</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div> <p>The concept of geography is present in all cultures, and therefore the history of the discipline is a series of competing narratives, with concepts emerging at various points across space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest known <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world maps</a> date back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Babylon">ancient Babylon</a> from the 9th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Raaflaub1_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raaflaub1-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The best known <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> world map, however, is the <i><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Map_of_the_World" title="Babylonian Map of the World">Imago Mundi</a></i> of 600 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Siebold1_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siebold1-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The map as reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Eckhard_Unger" title="Eckhard Unger">Eckhard Unger</a> shows <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, surrounded by a circular landmass showing <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a>, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (<a href="/wiki/Oceanus" title="Oceanus">Oceanus</a>), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.<sup id="cite_ref-Delano1_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delano1-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.<sup id="cite_ref-Finkel1_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkel1-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to the <i>Imago Mundi</i>, an earlier Babylonian <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world map</a> dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.<sup id="cite_ref-Raaflaub1_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raaflaub1-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eratosthenes_profile.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Eratosthenes_profile.png" decoding="async" width="278" height="275" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="275" /></a><figcaption>Etching of an ancient seal identified as Eratosthenes. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philipp_Daniel_Lippert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philipp Daniel Lippert (page does not exist)">Philipp Daniel Lippert</a>, <i>Dactyliothec</i>, 1767.</figcaption></figure> <p>The ideas of <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> (c. 610–545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors.<sup id="cite_ref-Kish1_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kish1-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anaximander is credited with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kish1_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kish1-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a> is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>, who were the first to explore geography as both art and science, achieved this through <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a>, or through <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">Mathematics</a>. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Earth is spherical</a> in shape, with the credit going either to <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a>. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tassoul1_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tassoul1-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first rigorous system of <a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">latitude and longitude</a> lines is credited to <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>. He employed a <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> system that was derived from <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a>. The meridians were subdivided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (<a href="/wiki/Minute_of_arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Minute of arc">minutes</a>). To measure the longitude at different locations on Earth, he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith1_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extensive mapping by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> to construct detailed <a href="/wiki/Atlas" title="Atlas">atlases</a>. He extended the work of <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.<sup id="cite_ref-Sullivan1_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sullivan1-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 3rd century onwards, <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese</a> methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more comprehensive than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century).<sup id="cite_ref-Needham1_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham1-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pei_Xiu" title="Pei Xiu">Pei Xiu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jia_Dan" title="Jia Dan">Jia Dan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fan_Chengda" title="Fan Chengda">Fan Chengda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Daguan" title="Zhou Daguan">Zhou Daguan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xu_Xiake" title="Xu Xiake">Xu Xiake</a> wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PtolemyWorldMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/PtolemyWorldMap.jpg/220px-PtolemyWorldMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/PtolemyWorldMap.jpg/330px-PtolemyWorldMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/PtolemyWorldMap.jpg/440px-PtolemyWorldMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1026" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_world_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy world map">Ptolemy world map</a>, reconstituted from <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i>Geographia</i>, written <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">fall of the Roman empire</a> led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Needham1_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham1-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Geography_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography in medieval Islam">Muslim geographers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> produced detailed world maps (such as <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a>), while other geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut al-Hamawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan Biruni">Abu Rayhan Biruni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. Turkish geographer <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari" title="Mahmud al-Kashgari">Mahmud al-Kashgari</a> drew a world map on a linguistic basis, and later so did <a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis_map" title="Piri Reis map">Piri Reis map</a>). Further, Islamic scholars translated and <a href="/wiki/Interpreting" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreting">interpreted</a> the earlier works of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> and established the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-Nawwab1_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawwab1-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_ibn_Sahl_al-Balkhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi">Abū Zayd al-Balkhī</a>, originally from <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>, founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Edson1_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edson1-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer accompanied a book of geographical coordinates, with instructions for making a rectangular world map with <a href="/wiki/Equirectangular_projection" title="Equirectangular projection">equirectangular projection</a> or cylindrical equidistant projection.<sup id="cite_ref-Tibbetts1_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tibbetts1-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan Biruni">Abu Rayhan Biruni</a> (976–1048) first described a polar equi-<a href="/wiki/Azimuthal_equidistant_projection" title="Azimuthal equidistant projection">azimuthal equidistant projection</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-King1_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King1-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the <a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">valleys</a>, and expanse of the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a>. He also discussed <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">planetary habitability</a> of the Earth. He also calculated the <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> of Kath, <a href="/wiki/Khwarezm" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarezm">Khwarezm</a>, using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesic</a> equation to accurately compute the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_circumference" title="Earth's circumference">Earth's circumference</a>, which was close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.<sup id="cite_ref-Aber1_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aber1-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the <a href="/wiki/Earth_radius" title="Earth radius">Earth radius</a> was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a> developed a new method of using <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometric</a> calculations based on the angle between a <a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plain</a> and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodman1_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodman1-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg/220px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg/330px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg/440px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figure_30.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2412" data-file-height="1206" /></a><figcaption> Map of southern Atlantic ocean from 1733 edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Geographia_Generalis" title="Geographia Generalis">Geographia Generalis</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> during the 16th and the 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. In 1650, the first edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Geographia_Generalis" title="Geographia Generalis">Geographia Generalis</a></i> was published by <a href="/wiki/Bernhardus_Varenius" title="Bernhardus Varenius">Bernhardus Varenius</a>, which was later edited and republished by others including <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker1955_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker1955-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This textbook sought to integrate new scientific discoveries and principles into classical geography and approach the discipline like the other sciences emerging, and is seen by some as the division between ancient and modern geography in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker1955_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker1955-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Geographia Generalis</i> contained both theoretical background and practical applications related to ship navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remaining problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. While the problem of latitude was solved long ago, but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridians should be was only part of the problem. It was left to <a href="/wiki/John_Harrison" title="John Harrison">John Harrison</a> to solve it by inventing the chronometer <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Number_Four" class="mw-redirect" title="Harrison Number Four">H-4</a> in 1760, and later in 1884 for the <a href="/wiki/International_Meridian_Conference" title="International Meridian Conference">International Meridian Conference</a> to adopt by convention the <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_meridian" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwich meridian">Greenwich meridian</a> as zero meridians.<sup id="cite_ref-Aber1_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aber1-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete <a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">academic discipline</a>, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century, with the foundations of the <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_de_G%C3%A9ographie" title="Société de Géographie">Société de Géographie</a> in 1821, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> in 1830, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Geographical_Society" title="Russian Geographical Society">Russian Geographical Society</a> in 1845, <a href="/wiki/American_Geographical_Society" title="American Geographical Society">American Geographical Society</a> in 1851, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Danish_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Danish Geographical Society">Royal Danish Geographical Society</a> in 1876 and the <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a> in 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-t118_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-t118-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ritter" title="Carl Ritter">Carl Ritter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Vidal_de_la_Blache" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Vidal de la Blache">Paul Vidal de la Blache</a> can be seen as a major turning point in geography from philosophy to an academic subject.<sup id="cite_ref-Societe1_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Societe1-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hartshorne" title="Richard Hartshorne">Richard Hartshorne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kerski" title="Joseph Kerski">Joseph Kerski</a> have regarded both Humboldt and Ritter as the founders of modern geography, as Humboldt and Ritter were the first to establish geography as an independent scientific discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/170px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/255px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/340px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007</figcaption></figure> <p>Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">geomatics</a> and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">environmental determinism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">regional geography</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">quantitative revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">critical geography</a>. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, as well as economics, sociology, and <a href="/wiki/Demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics">demographics</a>, have also grown greatly, especially as a result of <a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">earth system science</a> that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view. New concepts and philosophies have emerged from the rapid advancement of computers, quantitative methods, and interdisciplinary approaches. In 1970, <a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">first law of geography</a>, "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1_36-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler2_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This law summarizes the first assumption geographers make about the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_geographers">Notable geographers</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">List of geographers</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">List of Graeco-Roman geographers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg/170px-Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg/255px-Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg/340px-Gerardus_Mercator3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="832" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KwanMeiPo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/KwanMeiPo.jpg/170px-KwanMeiPo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/KwanMeiPo.jpg/255px-KwanMeiPo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/KwanMeiPo.jpg/340px-KwanMeiPo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4400" data-file-height="4789" /></a><figcaption>Mei-Po Kwan</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (1769–1859) – published <i><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos (Humboldt)">Cosmos</a>,</i> founder of the subfield <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, and established geography as an independent scientific discipline.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Kelly_Knowles" title="Anne Kelly Knowles">Anne Kelly Knowles</a> (Born 1957) – influential in the use of GIS and geographic methods in History.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernhardus_Varenius" title="Bernhardus Varenius">Bernhardus Varenius</a> (1622–1650)– German geographer and author of <i><a href="/wiki/Geographia_Generalis" title="Geographia Generalis">Geographia Generalis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_O._Sauer" title="Carl O. Sauer">Carl O. Sauer</a> (1889–1975) – cultural geographer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Ritter" title="Carl Ritter">Carl Ritter</a> (1779–1859) – occupied the first chair of geography, at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>, and established geography as an independent scientific discipline.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Brewer" title="Cynthia Brewer">Cynthia Brewer</a>  – cartographic theorist that created the web application <a href="/wiki/ColorBrewer" title="ColorBrewer">ColorBrewer</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dana_Tomlin" title="Dana Tomlin">Dana Tomlin</a>  – originator of map algebra</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doreen_Massey_(geographer)" title="Doreen Massey (geographer)">Doreen Massey</a> (1944–2016) – scholar in the space and places of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and its pluralities; winner of the <a href="/wiki/Laur%C3%A9at_Prix_International_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Vautrin_Lud" class="mw-redirect" title="Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud">Vautrin Lud Prize</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Churchill_Semple" title="Ellen Churchill Semple">Ellen Churchill Semple</a> (1863–1932) – first female president of the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_American_Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of American Geographers">Association of American Geographers</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 276–c. 195/194 BC) – calculated the size of the Earth.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Burgess" title="Ernest Burgess">Ernest Burgess</a> (1886–1966) – creator of the <a href="/wiki/Concentric_zone_model" title="Concentric zone model">concentric zone model</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Jenks" title="George F. Jenks">George F. Jenks</a> (1916–1996) – influential in computer cartography and thematic mapping</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a> (1512–1594) – <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographer</a> who produced the <a href="/wiki/Mercator_projection" title="Mercator projection">mercator projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Monmonier" title="Mark Monmonier">Mark Monmonier</a> (born 1943) – cartographic theorist who wrote numerous books contributing to Geographic Information Systems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mei-Po_Kwan" title="Mei-Po Kwan">Mei-Po Kwan</a> (born 1962) – contributed significantly to the use of GPS and real-time mapping within GIS</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Frank_Goodchild" title="Michael Frank Goodchild">Michael Frank Goodchild</a> (born 1944) – GIScience scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> (Arabic: أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي; Latin: Dreses) (1100–1165) – author of Nuzhatul Mushtaq.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Thrift" title="Nigel Thrift">Nigel Thrift</a> (born 1949) – originator of <a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">non-representational theory</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Vidal_de_La_Blache" title="Paul Vidal de La Blache">Paul Vidal de La Blache</a> (1845–1918) – founder of the French school of geopolitics, wrote the principles of human geography.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> (c. 100–c. 170) – compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book <a href="/wiki/Geographia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographia">Geographia</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Tomlinson" title="Roger Tomlinson">Roger Tomlinson</a> (1933 – 2014) – the primary originator of modern <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic information systems">geographic information systems</a>.</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Halford_Mackinder" title="Halford Mackinder">Halford Mackinder</a> (1861–1947) – co-founder of the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">LSE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geographical_Association" title="Geographical Association">Geographical Association</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (64/63 BC – c. AD 24) – wrote <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>, one of the first books outlining the study of geography.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a> (1930–2018) – coined the <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">first law of geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_second_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's second law of geography">second law of geography</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Christaller" title="Walter Christaller">Walter Christaller</a> (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of <a href="/wiki/Central_place_theory" title="Central place theory">Central place theory</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morris_Davis" title="William Morris Davis">William Morris Davis</a> (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cycle of erosion</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi-Fu_Tuan" title="Yi-Fu Tuan">Yi-Fu Tuan</a> (1930–2022) – Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic Geography as a discipline.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions_and_societies">Institutions and societies</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_organizations" title="Category:Geography organizations">Geography organizations</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Geographers" title="American Association of Geographers">American Association of Geographers</a> (AAG)<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Geographical_Society" title="American Geographical Society">American Geographical Society</a> (US) <sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Melik_Geographical_Institute" title="Anton Melik Geographical Institute">Anton Melik Geographical Institute</a> (Slovenia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_Theta_Upsilon" title="Gamma Theta Upsilon">Gamma Theta Upsilon</a> (international)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Geographical_Information_Systems" title="Institute of Geographical Information Systems">Institute of Geographical Information Systems</a> (Pakistan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geographical_Union" title="International Geographical Union">International Geographical Union</a> (International)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a> (United States) <sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Canadian Geographical Society">Royal Canadian Geographical Society</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Danish_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Danish Geographical Society">Royal Danish Geographical Society</a> (Denmark)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> (UK) <sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Geographical_Society" title="Russian Geographical Society">Russian Geographical Society</a> (Russia)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_literature" title="Category:Geographic literature">Geographic literature</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_American_Association_of_Geographers" title="Annals of the American Association of Geographers">Annals of the American Association of Geographers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipode_(journal)" title="Antipode (journal)"><i>Antipode</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Applied_Geography" title="Applied Geography">Applied Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_in_Human_Geography" title="Dialogues in Human Geography">Dialogues in Human Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Economic_Geography_(journal)" title="Economic Geography (journal)">Economic Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geographia_Technica" title="Geographia Technica">Geographia Technica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geographical_Review" title="Geographical Review">Geographical Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geographical_Bulletin" title="Geographical Bulletin">Geographical Bulletin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/GeoHumanities" class="mw-redirect" title="GeoHumanities">GeoHumanities</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Geographical_Information_Science" title="International Journal of Geographical Information Science">International Journal of Geographical Information Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/ISPRS_International_Journal_of_Geo-Information" title="ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information">ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Maps" title="Journal of Maps">Journal of Maps</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Rural_Studies" title="Journal of Rural Studies">Journal of Rural Studies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Transport_Geography" title="Journal of Transport Geography">Journal of Transport Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Professional_Geographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional Geographer">Professional Geographer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_Human_Geography" title="Progress in Human Geography">Progress in Human Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Geographical_Journal" title="The Geographical Journal">The Geographical Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Professional_Geographer" title="The Professional Geographer">The Professional Geographer</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_fields">Related fields</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geology">Geology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cycle_of_rocks_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cycle_of_rocks_2.png/220px-Cycle_of_rocks_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cycle_of_rocks_2.png/330px-Cycle_of_rocks_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cycle_of_rocks_2.png/440px-Cycle_of_rocks_2.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2300" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rock_cycle" title="Rock cycle">rock cycle</a> shows the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic">metamorphic</a> <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The discipline of geography, especially physical geography, and geology have significant overlap. In the past, the two have often shared academic departments at universities, a point that has led to conflict over resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith2_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both disciplines do seek to understand the <a href="/wiki/Rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocks">rocks</a> on the Earth's surface and the processes that change them over time. Geology employs many of the tools and techniques of technical geographers, such as GIS and remote sensing to aid in <a href="/wiki/Geological_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological mapping">geological mapping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Compton1_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compton1-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, geology includes research that goes beyond the spatial component, such as the chemical analysis of rocks and <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">biogeochemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gorham_1_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorham_1-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></div> <p>The discipline of History has significant overlap with geography, especially human geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryce1_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryce1-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Darby1_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darby1-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like geology, history and geography have shared university departments. Geography provides the spatial context within which historical events unfold.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryce1_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryce1-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physical geographic features of a region, such as its landforms, climate, and resources, shape human settlements, trade routes, and economic activities, which in turn influence the course of historical events.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryce1_130-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryce1-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, a historian must have a strong foundation in geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryce1_130-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryce1-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Darby1_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darby1-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians employ the techniques of technical geographers to create <a href="/wiki/Historical_atlas" title="Historical atlas">historical atlases</a> and maps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planetary_science">Planetary science</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Geography" title="Special:EditPage/Geography">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg/300px-Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg/450px-Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg/600px-Apollo15DunaTisza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption>Photograph from <a href="/wiki/Apollo_15" title="Apollo 15">Apollo 15</a> command module. Endeavour of the <a href="/wiki/Rille" title="Rille">rilles</a> in the vicinity of the crater <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_(crater)" title="Aristarchus (crater)">Aristarchus</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth, the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and even beyond. The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a>. The study of other planets is usually called <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">planetary science</a>. Alternative terms such as <a href="/wiki/Areography_(geography_of_Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Areography (geography of Mars)">areography (geography of Mars)</a> have been employed to describe the study of other celestial objects. Ultimately, geography may be considered a subdiscipline within planetary science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a> – Planet with environment similar to Earth's</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a> – System that relates geologic strata to time</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> – Physics of the Earth and its vicinity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">Terrestrial planet</a> – Planet that is composed primarily of silicate rocks or metals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_planetology" title="Theoretical planetology">Theoretical planetology</a> – Scientific modeling of planets</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Note01-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Note01_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emphasis added.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-intro1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-intro1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDahlmanRenwick2014" class="citation book cs1">Dahlman, Carl; Renwick, William (2014). <i>Introduction to Geography: People, Places & Environment</i> (6th ed.). Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0137504510" title="Special:BookSources/978-0137504510"><bdi>978-0137504510</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Geography%3A+People%2C+Places+%26+Environment&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0137504510&rft.aulast=Dahlman&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Renwick%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burt-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burt_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burt_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurt2009" class="citation book cs1">Burt, Tim (2009). <i>Key Concepts in Geography: Scale, Resolution, Analysis, and Synthesis in Physical Geography</i> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 85–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-9146-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Geography%3A+Scale%2C+Resolution%2C+Analysis%2C+and+Synthesis+in+Physical+Geography&rft.pages=85-96&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3&rft.aulast=Burt&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sala1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSala2009" class="citation book cs1">Sala, Maria (2009). <i>Geography Volume I</i>. Oxford, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems" title="Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems">EOLSS</a> UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84826-960-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84826-960-6"><bdi>978-1-84826-960-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geography+Volume+I&rft.place=Oxford%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=EOLSS+UNESCO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84826-960-6&rft.aulast=Sala&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roller-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roller_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoller2010" class="citation book cs1">Roller, Duane W. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691142678/eratosthenes-geography"><i>Eratosthenes' Geography</i></a>. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691142678" title="Special:BookSources/9780691142678"><bdi>9780691142678</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eratosthenes%27+Geography&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780691142678&rft.aulast=Roller&rft.aufirst=Duane+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fbooks%2Fhardcover%2F9780691142678%2Feratosthenes-geography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brentjes2009-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brentjes2009_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrentjes2009" class="citation book cs1">Brentjes, Sonja (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B978008044910400002X">"Cartography in Islamic Societies"</a>. <i>International Encyclopedia of Human Geography</i>. Elsevier. pp. 414–427. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044911-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044911-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044911-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cartography+in+Islamic+Societies&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+Human+Geography&rft.pages=414-427&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044911-1&rft.aulast=Brentjes&rft.aufirst=Sonja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FB978008044910400002X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kurt-2009-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kurt-2009_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurt_A._Raaflaub_&_Richard_J._A._Talbert2009" class="citation book cs1">Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert (2009). <i>Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in Pre-Modern Societies</i>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-9146-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geography+and+Ethnography%3A+Perceptions+of+the+World+in+Pre-Modern+Societies&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3&rft.au=Kurt+A.+Raaflaub+%26+Richard+J.+A.+Talbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thrift1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thrift1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thrift1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thrift1_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thrift1_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThrift2009" class="citation book cs1">Thrift, Nigel (2009). <i>Key Concepts in Geography: Space, The Fundamental Stuff of Geography</i> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 85–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-9146-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Geography%3A+Space%2C+The+Fundamental+Stuff+of+Geography&rft.pages=85-96&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3&rft.aulast=Thrift&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kent1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kent1_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kent1_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKent2009" class="citation book cs1">Kent, Martin (2009). <i>Key Concepts in Geography: Space, Making Room for Space in Physical Geography</i> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 97–119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-9146-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Geography%3A+Space%2C+Making+Room+for+Space+in+Physical+Geography&rft.pages=97-119&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3&rft.aulast=Kent&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuan1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan1_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan1_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan1_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan1_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan1_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuan1977" class="citation book cs1">Tuan, Yi-Fu (1977). <i>Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience</i>. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-3877-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8166-3877-2"><bdi>0-8166-3877-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+and+Place%3A+The+Perspective+of+Experience&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-8166-3877-2&rft.aulast=Tuan&rft.aufirst=Yi-Fu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuan2-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan2_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan2_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan2_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuan2_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuan1991" class="citation journal cs1">Tuan, Yi-Fu (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/215179">"A View of Geography"</a>. <i>Geographical Review</i>. <b>81</b> (1): 99–107. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991GeoRv..81...99T">1991GeoRv..81...99T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F215179">10.2307/215179</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/215179">215179</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geographical+Review&rft.atitle=A+View+of+Geography&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=99-107&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F215179%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F215179&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991GeoRv..81...99T&rft.aulast=Tuan&rft.aufirst=Yi-Fu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F215179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Castree1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Castree1_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Castree1_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Castree1_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Castree1_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastree2009" class="citation book cs1">Castree, Noel (2009). <i>Key Concepts in Geography: Place, Connections and Boundaries in an Interdependent World</i> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 85–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-9146-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Geography%3A+Place%2C+Connections+and+Boundaries+in+an+Interdependent+World&rft.pages=85-96&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3&rft.aulast=Castree&rft.aufirst=Noel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gregory1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory1_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory1_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory1_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gregory1_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory2009" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, Ken (2009). <i>Key Concepts in Geography: Place, The Management of Sustainable Physical Environments</i> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 173–199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-9146-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Geography%3A+Place%2C+The+Management+of+Sustainable+Physical+Environments&rft.pages=173-199&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Traditions1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Traditions1_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Traditions1_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Traditions1_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Traditions1_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Traditions1_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Traditions1_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattison1964" class="citation journal cs1">Pattison, William (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00221346408985265">"The Four Traditions of Geography"</a>. <i>Journal of Geography</i>. <b>63</b> (5): 211–216. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964JGeog..63..211P">1964JGeog..63..211P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00221346408985265">10.1080/00221346408985265</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geography&rft.atitle=The+Four+Traditions+of+Geography&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=211-216&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00221346408985265&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1964JGeog..63..211P&rft.aulast=Pattison&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F00221346408985265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tambassi-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tambassi_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tambassi_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tambassi_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTambassi2021" class="citation book cs1">Tambassi, Timothy (2021). <i>The Philosophy of Geo-Ontologies</i> (2nd ed.). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cartographica%3A+The+International+Journal+for+Geographic+Information+and+Geovisualization&rft.atitle=Towards+Qualitative+Geovisual+Analytics%3A+A+Case+Study+Involving+Places%2C+People%2C+and+Mediated+Experience&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=157-176&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Fcarto.48.3.1691&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3269642%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft.au=Skupin%2C+Andre%C2%B4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.utpjournals.press%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.3138%2Fcarto.48.3.1691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diriwächter1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Diriwächter1_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diriwächter, R. & Valsiner, J. 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Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85328-022-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85328-022-4"><bdi>978-0-85328-022-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Geography&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-85328-022-4&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=J.N.L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hough1-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hough1_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hough1_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoughIzdebska2016" class="citation book cs1">Hough, Carole; Izdebska, Daria (2016). 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(1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061006152742/http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html">"What is geography?"</a>. <i>AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and related Geographical Sciences</i>. American Association of Geographers. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html">the original</a> on 6 October 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AAG+Career+Guide%3A+Jobs+in+Geography+and+related+Geographical+Sciences&rft.atitle=What+is+geography%3F&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Cotterill&rft.aufirst=Peter+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aag.org%2FCareers%2FWhat_is_geog.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haidu1-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haidu1_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haidu1_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haidu1_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haidu1_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haidu1_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaidu2016" class="citation journal cs1">Haidu, Ionel (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://technicalgeography.org/pdf/1_2016/01_haidu.pdf">"What is Technical Geography"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geographia Technica</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 1–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21163%2FGT_2016.111.01">10.21163/GT_2016.111.01</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220119112718/http://www.technicalgeography.org/pdf/1_2016/01_haidu.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 19 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geographia+Technica&rft.atitle=What+is+Technical+Geography&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-5&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21163%2FGT_2016.111.01&rft.aulast=Haidu&rft.aufirst=Ionel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechnicalgeography.org%2Fpdf%2F1_2016%2F01_haidu.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KeyConcepts2014-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KeyConcepts2014_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KeyConcepts2014_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCliffordHollowayRiceValentine2014" class="citation book cs1">Clifford, Nicholas J.; Holloway, Sarah L.; Rice, Stephen P.; Valentine, Gill, eds. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Geography&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-3022-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fus.sagepub.com%2Fen-us%2Fnam%2Fkey-concepts-in-geography%2Fbook230446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KeyConcepts2003-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KeyConcepts2003_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollowayRiceValentine2003" class="citation book cs1">Holloway, Sarah L.; Rice, Stephen P.; Valentine, Gill, eds. (2003). <i>Key Concepts in Geography</i> (1st ed.). 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Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 1997. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F4913">10.17226/4913</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-05199-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-05199-6"><bdi>978-0-309-05199-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140507035328/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4913&page=28">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Geography%27s+Perspectives&rft.btitle=Rediscovering+Geography%3A+New+Relevance+for+Science+and+Society&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F4913&rft.isbn=978-0-309-05199-6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D4913%26page%3D28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matthews1-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Matthews1_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matthews1_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matthews1_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matthews1_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matthews1_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthewsHerbert2008" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, John; Herbert, David (2008). <i>Geography: A very short introduction</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Human+Geography&rft.atitle=Gesturing+toward+the+common+and+the+desperation%3A+Climate+geopoetics%27+potential&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-26&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2043820620986396&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232162312%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Acker&rft.aufirst=Maleea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1177%2F2043820620986396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dialogs5-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dialogs5_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCresswell2021" class="citation journal cs1">Cresswell, Tim (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2043820620986399">"Beyond geopoetics: For hybrid texts"</a>. <i>Dialogues in Human Geography</i>. <b>11</b>: 36–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2043820620986399">10.1177/2043820620986399</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2Fb64b3dd4-c959-4a8e-877f-85d3058ce4b1">20.500.11820/b64b3dd4-c959-4a8e-877f-85d3058ce4b1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232162314">232162314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Human+Geography&rft.atitle=Beyond+geopoetics%3A+For+hybrid+texts&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=36-39&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11820%2Fb64b3dd4-c959-4a8e-877f-85d3058ce4b1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232162314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2043820620986399&rft.aulast=Cresswell&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F2043820620986399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dixon1-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon1_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon1_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon1_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixonLeach1977" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, C.; Leach, B. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/18-questionnaires-and-interviews.pdf"><i>Questionnaires and Interviews in Geographical Research</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Geo Abstracts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-902246-97-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-902246-97-6"><bdi>0-902246-97-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Questionnaires+and+Interviews+in+Geographical+Research&rft.pub=Geo+Abstracts&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-902246-97-6&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Leach%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falexsingleton.files.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F09%2F18-questionnaires-and-interviews.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dixon2-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dixon2_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixonLeach1984" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, Chris; Leach, Bridget (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/39-survey-research-in-underdeveloped-countries.pdf"><i>Survey Research in Underdeveloped Countries</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86094-135-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-86094-135-3"><bdi>0-86094-135-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Survey+Research+in+Underdeveloped+Countries&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-86094-135-3&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Leach%2C+Bridget&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falexsingleton.files.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F09%2F39-survey-research-in-underdeveloped-countries.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeffernan2009" class="citation book cs1">Heffernan, Mike (2009). <i>Key Concepts in Geography: Histories of Geography</i> (2nd ed.). Sage. pp. 3–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-3022-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-3022-2"><bdi>978-1-4129-3022-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Geography%3A+Histories+of+Geography&rft.pages=3-20&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-3022-2&rft.aulast=Heffernan&rft.aufirst=Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Raaflaub1-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Raaflaub1_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Raaflaub1_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaaflaubTalbert2009" class="citation book cs1">Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Talbert, Richard J.A. (2009). <i>Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in Pre-Modern Societies</i>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9146-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-9146-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geography+and+Ethnography%3A+Perceptions+of+the+World+in+Pre-Modern+Societies&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3&rft.aulast=Raaflaub&rft.aufirst=Kurt+A.&rft.au=Talbert%2C+Richard+J.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siebold1-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Siebold1_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiebold1998" class="citation web cs1">Siebold, Jim (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/103.html">"Babylonian clay tablet, 600 B.C."</a> <i>henry-davis.com</i>. Henry Davis Consulting Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161109193653/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/103.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=henry-davis.com&rft.atitle=Babylonian+clay+tablet%2C+600+B.C.&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Siebold&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.henry-davis.com%2FMAPS%2FAncient%2520Web%2520Pages%2F103.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Delano1-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Delano1_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelano_Smith1996" class="citation journal cs1">Delano Smith, Catherine (1996). 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British Museum Magazine. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2073-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2073-7"><bdi>978-0-7141-2073-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+join+to+the+map+of+the+world%3A+A+notable+discovery&rft.pub=British+Museum+Magazine&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-2073-7&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Irving&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kish1-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kish1_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kish1_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKish1978" class="citation book cs1">Kish, George (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_6qF4vjZvhYC"><i>A Source Book in Geography</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-82270-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-82270-2"><bdi>978-0-674-82270-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424065455/https://books.google.com/books?id=_6qF4vjZvhYC">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Geography&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-674-82270-2&rft.aulast=Kish&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_6qF4vjZvhYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tassoul1-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tassoul1_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTassoulTassoul2004" class="citation book cs1">Tassoul, Jean-Louis; Tassoul, Monique (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00tass"><i>A Concise History of Solar and Stellar Physics</i></a></span>. London: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11711-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11711-9"><bdi>978-0-691-11711-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Solar+and+Stellar+Physics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11711-9&rft.aulast=Tassoul&rft.aufirst=Jean-Louis&rft.au=Tassoul%2C+Monique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconcisehistoryof00tass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith1-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith1_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1846" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Sir William (1846). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AvcGAAAAQAAJ"><i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology: Earinus-Nyx</i></a>. Vol. 2nd. London: Taylor and Walton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416171118/https://books.google.com/books?id=AvcGAAAAQAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Biography+and+Mythology%3A+Earinus-Nyx&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Walton&rft.date=1846&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Sir+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAvcGAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sullivan1-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan1_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2000" class="citation web cs1">Sullivan, Dan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~cherlin/History/Papers2000/sullivan.html">"Mapmaking and its History"</a>. <i>rutgers.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054812/http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~cherlin/History/Papers2000/sullivan.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rutgers.edu&rft.atitle=Mapmaking+and+its+History&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.rutgers.edu%2F~cherlin%2FHistory%2FPapers2000%2Fsullivan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham1-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Needham1_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Needham1_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1959" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC"><i>Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth</i></a>. Vol. 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05801-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05801-8"><bdi>978-0-521-05801-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160925055940/https://books.google.com/books/about/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Volume.html?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+and+the+Sciences+of+the+Heavens+and+the+Earth&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pub=Caves+Books%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-521-05801-8&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjfQ9E0u4pLAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nawwab1-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nawwab1_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNawwabHoyeSpeers2018" class="citation web cs1">Nawwab, Ismail I.; Hoye, Paul F.; Speers, Peter C. (5 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.islamicity.org/5898/islam-and-islamic-history-and-the-middle-east/">"Islam and Islamic History and The Middle East"</a>. <i>islamicity.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617153237/http://www.islamicity.com/education/ihame/default.asp?Destination=%2Feducation%2Fihame%2F20.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=islamicity.com&rft.atitle=Islam+and+Islamic+History+and+The+Middle+East&rft.date=2018-09-05&rft.aulast=Nawwab&rft.aufirst=Ismail+I.&rft.au=Hoye%2C+Paul+F.&rft.au=Speers%2C+Peter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamicity.org%2F5898%2Fislam-and-islamic-history-and-the-middle-east%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edson1-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edson1_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdsonSavage-Smith2007" class="citation journal cs1">Edson, Evelyn; <a href="/wiki/Emilie_Savage-Smith" title="Emilie Savage-Smith">Savage-Smith, Emilie</a> (2007). "Medieval Views of the Cosmos". <i>International Journal of the Classical Tradition</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 61–63. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30222166">30222166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+the+Classical+Tradition&rft.atitle=Medieval+Views+of+the+Cosmos&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=61-63&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30222166%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Edson&rft.aufirst=Evelyn&rft.au=Savage-Smith%2C+Emilie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tibbetts1-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tibbetts1_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTibbetts1997" class="citation book cs1">Tibbetts, Gerald R. (1997). "The Beginnings of a Cartographic Tradition". In <a href="/wiki/John_Brian_Harley" title="John Brian Harley">Harley, John Brian</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Woodward_(cartographer)" title="David Woodward (cartographer)">Woodward, David</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/Volume2_Book1.html"><i>The history of cartography</i></a>. Vol. 2. Chicago: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-31633-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-31633-5"><bdi>0-226-31633-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200512094904/https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/Volume2_Book1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Beginnings+of+a+Cartographic+Tradition&rft.btitle=The+history+of+cartography&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-226-31633-5&rft.aulast=Tibbetts&rft.aufirst=Gerald+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.uchicago.edu%2Fbooks%2FHOC%2FHOC_V2_B1%2FVolume2_Book1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-King1-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-King1_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1996" class="citation book cs1">King, David A. (1996). Rashed, Roshdi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://qisar.fssr.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf"><i>Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, genomics and timekeeping</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-71184-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-71184-2"><bdi>978-0-203-71184-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161111191313/http://qisar.fssr.uns.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 11 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomy+and+Islamic+society%3A+Qibla%2C+genomics+and+timekeeping&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-203-71184-2&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fqisar.fssr.uns.ac.id%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F04%2FQisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aber1-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aber1_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aber1_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAber2003" class="citation web cs1">Aber, James Sandusky (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm">"Abu Rayhan al-Biruni"</a>. <i>academic.emporia.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Emporia_State_University" title="Emporia State University">Emporia State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811024630/http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=academic.emporia.edu&rft.atitle=Abu+Rayhan+al-Biruni&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Aber&rft.aufirst=James+Sandusky&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademic.emporia.edu%2Faberjame%2Fhistgeol%2Fbiruni%2Fbiruni.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodman1-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goodman1_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1992" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Lenn Evan (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6x-pcqMicC"><i>Avicenna</i></a>. Great Britain: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01929-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01929-3"><bdi>978-0-415-01929-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416171106/https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6x-pcqMicC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2020</span>. <q>It was Biruni, not Avicenna, who found a way for a single man, at a single moment, to measure the earth's circumference, by trigonometric calculations based on angles measured from a mountaintop and the plain beneath it – thus improving on Eratosthenes' method of sighting the sun simultaneously from two different sites, applied in the ninth century by astronomers of the Khalif al-Ma'mun.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avicenna&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-415-01929-3&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Lenn+Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVJ6x-pcqMicC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baker1955-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baker1955_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baker1955_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker1955" class="citation journal cs1">Baker, J. N. L. (1955). "The Geography of Bernhard Varenius". <i>Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers)</i>. <b>21</b> (21): 51–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F621272">10.2307/621272</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/621272">621272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+and+Papers+%28Institute+of+British+Geographers%29&rft.atitle=The+Geography+of+Bernhard+Varenius&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=51-60&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F621272&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F621272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=J.+N.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warntz1989-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warntz1989_114-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarntz1989" class="citation journal cs1">Warntz, William (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2563251">"Newton, the Newtonians, and the Geographia Generalis Varenii"</a>. <i>Annals of the Association of American Geographers</i>. <b>79</b> (2): 165–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F621272">10.2307/621272</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/621272">621272</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=Newton%2C+the+Newtonians%2C+and+the+Geographia+Generalis+Varenii&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-191&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F621272&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F621272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Warntz&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2563251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-t118-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-t118_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivingstoneWithers2011" class="citation book cs1">Livingstone, David N.; Withers, Charles W. J. (15 July 2011). <i>Geographies of Nineteenth-Century Science</i>. 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Société de Géographie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161106113117/http://www.socgeo.org/la-societe/qui-sommes-nous/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1985). <i>Geology in the field</i>. New York: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-82902-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-82902-7"><bdi>978-0-471-82902-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geology+in+the+field&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-471-82902-7&rft.au=Compton%2C+Robert+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gorham_1-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gorham_1_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorham1991" class="citation journal cs1">Gorham, Eville (1 January 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00002942">"Biogeochemistry: its origins and development"</a>. <i>Biogeochemistry</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 199–239. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Biogc..13..199G">1991Biogc..13..199G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00002942">10.1007/BF00002942</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-515X">1573-515X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128563314">128563314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biogeochemistry&rft.atitle=Biogeochemistry%3A+its+origins+and+development&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=199-239&rft.date=1991-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00002942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128563314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1573-515X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991Biogc..13..199G&rft.aulast=Gorham&rft.aufirst=Eville&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2FBF00002942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bryce1-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce1_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce1_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce1_130-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryce1_130-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryce1902" class="citation journal cs1">Bryce, James (1902). "The Importance of Geography in Education". <i>The Geographical Journal</i>. <b>23</b> (3): 29–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1775737">10.2307/1775737</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1775737">1775737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Geographical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Importance+of+Geography+in+Education&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=29-32&rft.date=1902&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1775737&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1775737%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Darby1-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Darby1_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Darby1_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarby2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Darby" title="Clifford Darby">Darby, Henry Clifford</a> (2002). <i>The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France, and the United States</i>. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0859896993" title="Special:BookSources/978-0859896993"><bdi>978-0859896993</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Relations+of+History+and+Geography%3A+Studies+in+England%2C+France%2C+and+the+United+States&rft.place=Exeter&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=University+of+Exeter+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0859896993&rft.aulast=Darby&rft.aufirst=Henry+Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right mw-collapsible sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow" style="clear: both"> <b>Geography</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Geography" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Geography">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Geography" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Geography">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Geography" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Geography">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Geography" class="extiw" title="q:Geography">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Geography" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Geography">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Geography" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Geography">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Geography" class="extiw" title="v:Geography">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071" class="extiw" title="d:Q1071">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/geography">Geography</a> at the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Britannica">Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></i> website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/geography">Definition of geography at Dictionary.com</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416161729/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/geography">Definition of geography by Lexico</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/geography">Origin and meaning of geography by Online Etymology Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/topic/geography">Topic Dictionaries at Oxford Learner's Dictionaries</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of geography terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_data_and_information_organizations" title="Category:Geographic data and information organizations">Geographic data and information organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Geographical societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" title="List of geoscience organizations">Geoscience societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_mapping_agency" title="National mapping agency">National mapping agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_education" title="Category:Geography education">Geography education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographers_on_Film" title="Geographers on Film">Geographers on Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geography_Olympiad" title="International Geography Olympiad">International Geography Olympiad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_citizenship" title="Spatial citizenship">Spatial citizenship</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography" title="Category:Geography">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Geography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Geography">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Geography" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Geography">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, 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colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" title="Glossary of agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" title="Glossary of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Glossary of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_calculus" title="Glossary of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cell_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Clinical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_hardware_terms" title="Glossary of computer hardware terms">Computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_developmental_biology" title="Glossary of developmental biology">Developmental and reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_entomology_terms" title="Glossary of entomology terms">Entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics_and_evolutionary_biology" title="Glossary of genetics and evolutionary biology">Genetics and evolutionary biology</a></li> <li>Cellular and molecular biology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cellular_and_molecular_biology_(0%E2%80%93L)" title="Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (0–L)">0–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cellular_and_molecular_biology_(M%E2%80%93Z)" title="Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z)">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li>Geography <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A%E2%80%93M)" title="Glossary of geography terms (A–M)">A–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N%E2%80%93Z)" title="Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)">N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms" title="Glossary of Arabic toponyms">Arabic toponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms" title="Glossary of Hebrew toponyms">Hebrew toponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikonyms_in_Western_and_South_Asia" title="Oikonyms in Western and South Asia">Western and South Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ichthyology" title="Glossary of ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_machine_vision" title="Glossary of machine vision">Machine vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" title="Glossary of areas of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_nanotechnology" title="Glossary of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" title="Glossary of probability and statistics">Probability and statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" title="Glossary of psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_computing" title="Glossary of quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_scientific_naming" title="Glossary of scientific naming">Scientific naming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_virology" title="Glossary of virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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