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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origins of the protest movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_protest_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_of_the_protest_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_the_protest_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Growth of the protest movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_the_protest_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"May_19th_Incident"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"May_19th_Incident""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The "May 19th Incident"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"May_19th_Incident"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"Hagerty_Incident"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"Hagerty_Incident""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The "Hagerty Incident"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"Hagerty_Incident"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"June_15th_Incident"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"June_15th_Incident""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The "June 15th Incident"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"June_15th_Incident"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Aftermath and consequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_1970_Anpo_protests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_1970_Anpo_protests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The 1970 Anpo protests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_1970_Anpo_protests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals_and_Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals_and_Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.2</span> <span>Journals and Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals_and_Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button 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href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anpo-protestoj" title="Anpo-protestoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Anpo-protestoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B6%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88" title="اعتراض‌های آنپو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اعتراض‌های آنپو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifestations_contre_l%27Anpo" title="Manifestations contre l'Anpo – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Manifestations contre l'Anpo" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%88%EB%B3%B4_%ED%88%AC%EC%9F%81" title="안보 투쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="안보 투쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protes_Anpo" title="Protes Anpo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Protes Anpo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteste_Anpo" title="Proteste Anpo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Proteste Anpo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E4%BF%9D%E9%97%98%E4%BA%89" title="安保闘争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="安保闘争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E4%BF%9D%E6%96%97%E4%BA%89" title="安保斗争 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="安保斗争" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11257460#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Japanese protests against the US-Japan Security Treaty</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a 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Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Anpo+protests%22">"Anpo protests"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Anpo+protests%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Anpo+protests%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Anpo+protests%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Anpo+protests%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Anpo+protests%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing: 2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Anpo protests<br />安保闘争</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; line-height: 1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_07.jpg/300px-1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="447" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_07.jpg/450px-1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_07.jpg/600px-1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1340" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Masses of protestors flood the streets around Japan's <a href="/wiki/National_Diet" title="National Diet">National Diet</a> building, June 18, 1960</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">1959–1960<br />1970</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="display:inline;" class="location">Japan</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Caused by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Mutual_Cooperation_and_Security_between_the_United_States_and_Japan" title="Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan">Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan</a> and American bases in the country</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Goals</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><b>1959–1960</b> <ul><li>Prevent ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Mutual_Cooperation_and_Security_between_the_United_States_and_Japan" title="Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan">Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan</a></li> <li>Resignation of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Nobusuke_Kishi" title="Nobusuke Kishi">Nobusuke Kishi</a></li> <li>Cancellation of visit to Japan by US President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></li></ul> <p><b>1970</b> </p> <ul><li>Abrogation of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Mutual_Cooperation_and_Security_between_the_United_States_and_Japan" title="Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan">Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Concessions</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Resignation of Prime Minister Kishi (1960)</li> <li>Cancellation of visit to Japan by Eisenhower (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Okinawa_Reversion_Agreement" title="1971 Okinawa Reversion Agreement">Reversion of Okinawa to Japan</a> (1972)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;">Parties</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><table style="width:100%; border-spacing:0; margin:0; text-align:left; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> Anti-treaty protestors</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Japan" title="Government of Japan">Government of Japan</a> (Anti-treaty factions)</li></ul></div></td> <td style="width:50%; padding-left:0.25em; border-left:1px dotted #aaa"><div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Japan" title="Government of Japan">Government of Japan</a> (Pro-treaty factions)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the United States">Government of the United States</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> Pro-treaty counter-protesters</li></ul></div></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Anpo protests</b>, also known as the <b>Anpo struggle<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">安保闘争</span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Anpo tōsō</i></span>)</span></b> in Japanese, were a series of massive protests throughout Japan from 1959 to 1960, and again in 1970, against the <a href="/wiki/Anpo" class="mw-redirect" title="Anpo">United States–Japan Security Treaty</a>, which allows the United States to maintain military bases on Japanese soil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20181_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur20181-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name of the protests comes from the Japanese term for "Security Treaty," which is <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn"><i>Anzen Hoshō Jōyaku</i></i></span><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">安全保障条約</span></span>)</span>, or just <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn"><i>Anpo</i></i></span><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">安保</span></span>)</span> for short. </p><p>The protests in 1959 and 1960 were staged in opposition to a 1960 revision of the <a href="/wiki/Security_Treaty_Between_the_United_States_and_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan">original 1952 Security Treaty</a>, and eventually grew to become the largest popular protests in Japan's modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20181_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur20181-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the climax of the protests in June 1960, hundreds of thousands of protestors surrounded Japan's <a href="/wiki/National_Diet" title="National Diet">National Diet</a> building in Tokyo on nearly a daily basis, and large protests took place in other cities and towns all across Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201824_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201824-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 15, protestors smashed their way into the Diet compound itself, leading to a violent clash with police. During the confrontation, a female <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo University">Tokyo University</a> student, <a href="/wiki/Michiko_Kanba" title="Michiko Kanba">Michiko Kanba</a>, was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20181,_30_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur20181,_30-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the aftermath of this incident, a planned visit to Japan by US president <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> was cancelled, and conservative prime minister <a href="/wiki/Nobusuke_Kishi" title="Nobusuke Kishi">Nobusuke Kishi</a> was forced to resign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20184–6_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur20184–6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second round of protests occurred in 1970 at the time of the 1960 Anpo treaty's automatic renewal. Although shorter in duration, these later protests also achieved significant size. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Security_Treaty_Between_the_United_States_and_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan">original US-Japan Security Treaty</a> had been forced on Japan by the United States as a condition for ending the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">US military occupation of Japan</a> following the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018111_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018111-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was signed on September 8, 1951, along with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Peace_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco Peace Treaty">San Francisco Peace Treaty</a>, formally ending World War II in Asia. The Security Treaty went into effect on April 28, 1952, in tandem with the end of the occupation of Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018111_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018111-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original Security Treaty had no specified end date or means of abrogation, allowed US forces stationed in Japan to be used for any purpose without prior consultation with the Japanese government, had a clause specifically authorizing US troops to put down domestic protests in Japan, and did not commit the United States to defend Japan if Japan were attacked by a third party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201811_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201811-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Japanese government began pushing for a revision to the treaty as early as 1952. The Eisenhower administration, however, resisted calls for revision until a growing anti-US military base movement in Japan culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Sunagawa_Struggle" title="Sunagawa Struggle">Sunagawa Struggle</a> of 1955-1957, whereby a US Air Force base expanded into a nearby village.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201815_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201815-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Popular outrage in Japan escalated even further in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Girard_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Girard Incident">Girard Incident</a> of 1957, in which US Army Soldier William S. Girard, for his own amusement, fired an empty grenade shell at a housewife salvaging scrap near the military base where he was stationed, and killed her.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201816–17_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201816–17-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Girard was convicted of <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">manslaughter</a> along with being subsequently demoted, and the US Supreme Court case <a href="/wiki/Wilson_v._Girard" title="Wilson v. Girard">Wilson v. Girard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wvg_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wvg-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LAT_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LAT-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This made animosity towards the status quo even more apparent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201815–17_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201815–17-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States agreed to a revision, negotiations began in 1958, and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Mutual_Cooperation_and_Security_Between_the_United_States_and_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between the United States and Japan">new treaty</a> was signed by Eisenhower and Kishi at a ceremony in Washington, D.C., on January 19, 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201821-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From a Japanese perspective, the new treaty was a significant improvement over the original treaty, committing the United States to defend Japan in an attack, requiring prior consultation with the Japanese government before dispatching US forces based in Japan overseas, removing the clause preauthorizing suppression of domestic disturbances, and specifying an initial 10-year term, after which the treaty could be abrogated by either party with one year's notice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201817–18_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201817–18-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because the new treaty was better than the old one, Kishi expected it to be ratified in relatively short order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201817_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201817-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, he invited Eisenhower to visit Japan beginning on June 19, 1960, in part to celebrate the newly ratified treaty. If Eisenhower's visit had proceeded as planned, he would have become the first sitting US president to visit Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201835_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201835-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_protest_movement">Origins of the protest movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins of the protest movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many on the Japanese left, and some on the right, were united in hoping to chart a more neutral course in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, and thus hoped to get rid of the treaty and the <a href="/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93Japan_Alliance" title="U.S.–Japan Alliance">U.S.–Japan Alliance</a> entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201812–13_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201812–13-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, even though the revised treaty was manifestly superior to the original treaty, these groups decided to oppose ratification of the revised treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kishi anticipated that such protests might arise, and in the fall of 1958 attempted to pass a "Police Duties Bill" which would have given police in Japan new powers of warrantless search and seizure in order to target protesters ahead of treaty ratification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201818_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201818-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this proved to be a miscalculation, as the law reminded many in Japan of pre-World War II authoritarianism and provoked widespread popular outrage. A nationwide coalition of political and civic organizations coalesced to oppose the Police Bill, and Kishi was forced to withdraw it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201818_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201818-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This victory emboldened the protestors, and rather than disbanding, the anti-Police Bill coalition remained active and recruited new member organizations to oppose the revised Security Treaty, which was in the final stages of negotiation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201818–19_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201818–19-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rebranding itself the People's Council for Preventing Revision of the Security Treaty (<i>Anpo Jōyaku Kaitei Soshi Kokumin Kaigi</i>) in the spring of 1959, the coalition coordinated a series of "united actions" in which thousands of local "joint struggle councils" around the nation would take part in coordinated protest activity on specified days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201819–20_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201819–20-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth_of_the_protest_movement">Growth of the protest movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Growth of the protest movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over the rest of 1959 and into 1960, the protest movement continued to gradually grow larger, especially as heightening Cold War tensions inspired fear that the new treaty would lock Japan into one side of a dangerous global conflict. The April 1960 <a href="/wiki/April_Revolution" title="April Revolution">revolution in Korea</a> that forced US-backed strongman <a href="/wiki/Syngman_Rhee" title="Syngman Rhee">Syngman Rhee</a> from power proved an inspiration to Japanese protesters, as it showed that autocratic governments could be defeated by popular protests, even if they had the backing of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201821-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Then on May 1, the <a href="/wiki/U-2_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="U-2 Incident">U-2 Incident</a> shattered the amiable "Spirit of Camp David" that had prevailed between the United States and the Soviet Union since Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>'s visit to the United States the previous September.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201821-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the aftermath of the incident, the Soviet Union disinvited Eisenhower from his planned visit to the USSR the coming summer and the brief thaw in the Cold War came to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821–22_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201821–22-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also came to light that some of the U-2 spy planes that were used to surveil the Soviet Union were based at US bases in Japan, further fueling fears that in the case of a nuclear war, Japan might become a target.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201822-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_"May_19th_Incident""><span id="The_.22May_19th_Incident.22"></span>The "May 19th Incident"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The "May 19th Incident""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meanwhile, in the <a href="/wiki/National_Diet" title="National Diet">National Diet</a> the revised treaty faced an arduous path to ratification. Although the opposition <a href="/wiki/Japan_Socialist_Party" title="Japan Socialist Party">Japan Socialist Party</a> (JSP) controlled only about a third of the seats in the Diet, and thus lacked the votes to prevent ratification, the Socialists used a variety of parliamentary tactics to drag out debate, in hopes of preventing ratification before Eisenhower's planned arrival on June 19, and giving the extra-parliamentary protests more time to grow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201821-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_01.jpg/250px-1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_01.jpg/375px-1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/1960_Protests_against_the_United_States-Japan_Security_Treaty_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption>A scrum at the rostrum of the National Diet, as <a href="/wiki/Japan_Socialist_Party" title="Japan Socialist Party">Japan Socialist Party</a> Diet members attempt to prevent Speaker of the Lower House <a href="/wiki/Ichir%C5%8D_Kiyose" title="Ichirō Kiyose">Ichirō Kiyose</a> from calling for a vote on extending the Diet Session, while being restrained by police officers, May 19, 1960</figcaption></figure> <p>With Eisenhower's visit approaching, Kishi became increasingly anxious to ratify the treaty in time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201822-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the Diet session was scheduled to end almost a month earlier, on May 26.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201822-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Late in the evening on May 19, Kishi took the desperate measure of suddenly and unexpectedly calling for a 50-day extension of the Diet session, in defiance of longstanding parliamentary norms and over the opposition of many members of his own ruling <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)">Liberal Democratic Party</a> (LDP).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201822-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Socialist Diet members staged a sit-in in the halls of the Diet, Kishi took the unprecedented step of calling 500 police officers into the Diet chambers and having opposition lawmakers physically removed from the premises.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822–23_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201822–23-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter, with only members of his own party present, he passed the extension of the Diet Session. A final shock came after midnight, just after the extension was approved, when Kishi then called for immediate ratification of the treaty. With only members of Kishi's own party present, the revised Security Treaty was approved by the Lower House of the Diet with no debate and only a <a href="/wiki/Voice_vote" title="Voice vote">voice vote</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201823_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201823-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Japanese law, if the Upper House failed to vote on the treaty, which seemed highly likely given the political chaos, the treaty would automatically take effect 30 days later on June 19, just in time for Eisenhower's arrival.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201823_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201823-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kishi's "anti-democratic" actions during this <b>May 19th Incident<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">五・一九事件</span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Go-ichi-kyū jiken</i></span>)</span></b> stunned the nation and even much of his own party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201824_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201824-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kishi received criticism from across the political spectrum, with even conservative newspapers calling for his resignation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201825_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201825-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late May and into June, the anti-Treaty protests greatly increased in size, as many ordinary citizens took to the streets to express their outrage, and the aims of the protests expanded from protesting the Security Treaty to ousting Kishi and "protecting democracy."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201824–26_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201824–26-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large protests around the National Diet, the US Embassy, and the Prime Minister's Official Residence in Tokyo occurred on a near daily basis, and large-scale protests were staged in city centers all over Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201827_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201827-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June, the <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dhy%C5%8D" title="Sōhyō">Sōhyō</a> labor federation carried out a series of nationwide general strikes. The June 15 strike involved 6.4 million workers across the country, making it the largest strike in Japan's history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201829_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201829-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_"Hagerty_Incident""><span id="The_.22Hagerty_Incident.22"></span>The "Hagerty Incident"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The "Hagerty Incident""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagerty_Incident_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Hagerty_Incident_02.jpg/250px-Hagerty_Incident_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Hagerty_Incident_02.jpg/375px-Hagerty_Incident_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Hagerty_Incident_02.jpg/500px-Hagerty_Incident_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="690" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Hagerty's car is mobbed by protestors, June 10, 1960</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagerty_Incident_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Hagerty_Incident_04.jpg/250px-Hagerty_Incident_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Hagerty_Incident_04.jpg/375px-Hagerty_Incident_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Hagerty_Incident_04.jpg/500px-Hagerty_Incident_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>A U.S. Marines helicopter comes to Hagerty's rescue, June 10, 1960</figcaption></figure> <p>On June 10, Eisenhower's Press Secretary <a href="/wiki/James_Hagerty" title="James Hagerty">James Hagerty</a> arrived at Tokyo's <a href="/wiki/Haneda_Airport" title="Haneda Airport">Haneda Airport</a> to make advance preparations for Eisenhower's impending arrival. Hagerty was picked up in a black car by US Ambassador to Japan <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur_II" title="Douglas MacArthur II">Douglas MacArthur II</a> (the nephew of the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">famous general</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201827_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201827-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who deliberately provoked an international incident by ordering that the car be driven into a large crowd of protesters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201829_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201829-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The protesters surrounded the car, cracking its windows, smashing its tail lights, and rocking it back and forth for more than an hour while standing on its roof, chanting anti-American slogans and singing protest songs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201827–29_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201827–29-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, MacArthur and Hagerty had to be rescued by a <a href="/wiki/US_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="US Marines">US Marines</a> military helicopter,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201829_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201829-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> creating indelible imagery of the so-called <b>Hagerty Incident<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">ハガチー事件</span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Hagachii jiken</i></span>)</span></b> that was transmitted by newswires around the world. </p><p>MacArthur had hoped that the image of the car surrounded by protesters would incentivize the Japanese government to crack down harder on the protests. However, his actions backfired by suggesting instead that Eisenhower's safety would be at risk if he continued with his plans to visit Japan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_"June_15th_Incident""><span id="The_.22June_15th_Incident.22"></span>The "June 15th Incident"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The "June 15th Incident""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On June 15, as part of the anti-Treaty coalition's 24th united action, hundreds of thousands of protestors marched on the National Diet in Tokyo. In the late afternoon, the protestors were attacked by right-wing ultranationalist counter-protestors, who rammed them with trucks and attacked them with wooden staves spiked with nails, causing dozens of injuries from moderate to severe, including several hospitalizations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201829–30_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201829–30-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just a few minutes later, radical left-wing activists from the nationwide student federation <a href="/wiki/Zengakuren" title="Zengakuren">Zengakuren</a> smashed their way into the Diet compound itself, precipitating a long battle with police,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20181_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur20181-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who beat the unarmed students bloody with their batons in front of mass media reporters and television cameras.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201830_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201830-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The police finally succeeded in clearing the Diet compound after 1 a.m., but in the struggle, a young female <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo University">Tokyo University</a> student and Zengakuren member named <a href="/wiki/Michiko_Kanba" title="Michiko Kanba">Michiko Kanba</a> was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201830_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201830-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After this violent <b>June 15th Incident<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">六・一五事件</span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Roku-ichi-go jiken</i></span>)</span></b>, pressure mounted on Kishi to cancel Eisenhower's visit. Kishi hoped to secure the streets for Eisenhower's visit by calling out the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Self_Defense_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Self Defense Forces">Japan Self Defense Forces</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201833_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201833-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and tens of thousands of right-wing thugs that would be provided by his friend, the <a href="/wiki/Yakuza" title="Yakuza">yakuza</a>-affiliated right-wing "fixer" <a href="/wiki/Yoshio_Kodama" title="Yoshio Kodama">Yoshio Kodama</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018250_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018250-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he was talked out of these extreme measures by his cabinet, and thereafter had no choice but to cancel Eisenhower's visit and take responsibility for the chaos by announcing his own resignation on June 16.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201833_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201833-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 17, newspapers across the nation, which had previously supported the protestors in their struggle to oust Kishi, issued a joint editorial condemning violence on both sides and calling for an end to the protest movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201833,_238–39_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201833,_238–39-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the largest single day of protests in the entire movement took place on June 18, the day before the treaty would automatically take effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201834_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201834-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hundreds of thousands of protesters surrounded the National Diet, hoping to somehow stop the treaty at the last moment. The protestors remained in place until after midnight, when the treaty automatically took effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201834_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201834-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the treaty in force and Kishi's resignation becoming official on July 15, the protest movement lost momentum.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201834_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201834-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the anti-Treaty coalition held a few more "united actions," turnout was low, and the movement died away.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201834_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201834-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_consequences">Aftermath and consequences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aftermath and consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1960 Anpo protests had ultimately failed to stop the revised US-Japan Security Treaty from taking effect, but they did force the resignation of the Kishi Cabinet and the cancellation of Eisenhower's planned visit. Kishi was succeeded as prime minister by <a href="/wiki/Hayato_Ikeda" title="Hayato Ikeda">Hayato Ikeda</a>, who took a much more conciliatory stance toward the political opposition, indefinitely shelved Kishi's plans to revise the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Constitution">Japanese Constitution</a>, and announced the <a href="/wiki/Income_Doubling_Plan" title="Income Doubling Plan">Income Doubling Plan</a> to redirect the nation's energies away from contentious political struggles and toward a nationwide drive for rapid economic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201875–107_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201875–107-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The anti-American aspect of the protests and the humiliating cancellation of Eisenhower's visit brought US-Japan relations to their lowest ebb since the end of World War II. However, the incoming administration of President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> responded by taking a more gentle approach to US-Japan relations. Kennedy appointed sympathetic Japan expert and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Edwin_O._Reischauer" title="Edwin O. Reischauer">Edwin O. Reischauer</a> as ambassador to Japan, rather than a career diplomat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201851_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201851-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also invited Ikeda to be the first foreign leader to visit the United States in his term in office,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201850_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201850-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at their 1961 summit, promised Ikeda he would henceforth treat Japan more like a close ally such as Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201860–62_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201860–62-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Japan, the protests spurred a new wave of right-wing activism and violence, including the assassination of Socialist Party chairman <a href="/wiki/Inejir%C5%8D_Asanuma" title="Inejirō Asanuma">Inejirō Asanuma</a> during a televised election debate in the fall of 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018248–61_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018248–61-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Inejir%C5%8D_Asanuma" title="Assassination of Inejirō Asanuma">Asanuma's assassination</a> weakened the JSP,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018127_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018127-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was further riven by conflicts over the conduct of the anti-Treaty protests, leading to the splitting off of the breakaway <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Party_(Japan)" title="Democratic Socialist Party (Japan)">Democratic Socialist Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018109–113_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018109–113-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Anpo protests also influenced a series of transformations in Japanese art and literature, as disillusionment with the failure of the protests to stop the treaty led more artists and writers to experiment with new types of artistic and literary forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018176–217_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018176–217-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japanese students who were in college or graduate school between 1960 and 1970 and protested against the Security Treaty are often remembered as the "Anpo Generation" (安保世代, <i>Anpo sedai</i>), suggesting the defining role the anti-Treaty protests had in their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20184_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur20184-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the protests had a splintering effect on the student movement, as heated disagreements over who was to blame for the failure to stop the treaty led to infighting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018147–150_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018147–150-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the immediate aftermath of the protests, the previously unified nationwide <a href="/wiki/Zengakuren" title="Zengakuren">Zengakuren</a> student federation disintegrated into numerous warring factions, paving the way for the rise of the radical <a href="/wiki/New_Left_in_Japan" title="New Left in Japan">New Left</a> sects that would play a leading role in the <a href="/wiki/1968-69_Japanese_university_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="1968-69 Japanese university protests">1968-69 Japanese university protests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018150–152_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018150–152-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_1970_Anpo_protests">The 1970 Anpo protests</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The 1970 Anpo protests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout the decade of the 1960s, left-wing activists looked forward to the end of the revised treaty's initial 10-year term in 1970 as an opportunity to try to persuade the Japanese government to abrogate the treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur202217_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur202217-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1970, in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%9369_Japanese_university_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="1968–69 Japanese university protests">1968–69 Japanese university protests</a> in Japan, a number of student groups, civic groups, and the anti-Vietnam War organization <a href="/wiki/Beheiren" title="Beheiren">Beheiren</a> held a series of protest marches against the Security Treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur202217_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur202217-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, prime minister <a href="/wiki/Eisaku_Sat%C5%8D" title="Eisaku Satō">Eisaku Satō</a> (who was Kishi's younger brother) opted to ignore the protests completely and allow the treaty to automatically renew.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur202217_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur202217-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur20181-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20181_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20181_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20181_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPassin1962" class="citation journal cs1">Passin, Herbert (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/sources-of-protest-in-japan/D1B768B50FE856E8F12C8AB39202127C">"The Sources of Protest in Japan"</a>. <i>American Political Science Review</i>. <b>56</b> (2): 391–403. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1952374">10.2307/1952374</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1537-5943">1537-5943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=The+Sources+of+Protest+in+Japan&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=391-403&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1952374&rft.issn=1537-5943&rft.aulast=Passin&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Famerican-political-science-review%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fsources-of-protest-in-japan%2FD1B768B50FE856E8F12C8AB39202127C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201824-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a 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Girard</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_354" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 354">354</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/354/524/#526">524, 526</a> (1957).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LAT-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LAT_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harnisch, Larry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/thedailymirror/2007/06/soldier_kills_w.html">"Soldier kills woman"</a>, <i>Los Angeles Times</i>, retrieved November 27, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201815–17-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201815–17_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 15–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201821-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201817–18-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201817–18_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201817-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201817_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201835-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201835_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201812–13-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201812–13_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gendai.ismedia.jp/articles/-/84206">"60年安保とは何だったのか？過激化する左翼運動と「新左翼」への道（池上彰×佐藤優）"</a>. <i>現代新書 | 講談社</i> (in Japanese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E3%82%B3%E3%83%88%E3%83%90%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AF&rft.atitle=%E5%AE%89%E4%BF%9D%E6%94%B9%E5%AE%9A%E9%98%BB%E6%AD%A2%E5%9B%BD%E6%B0%91%E4%BC%9A%E8%AD%B0%E3%81%A8%E3%81%AF&rft.aulast=%E4%B8%89%E8%A8%82%E7%89%88%2C%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E4%BA%8B%E5%85%B8%E5%86%85%E8%A8%80%E5%8F%8A&rft.aufirst=%E6%97%BA%E6%96%87%E7%A4%BE%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%8F%B2%E4%BA%8B%E5%85%B8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkotobank.jp%2Fword%2F%25E5%25AE%2589%25E4%25BF%259D%25E6%2594%25B9%25E5%25AE%259A%25E9%2598%25BB%25E6%25AD%25A2%25E5%259B%25BD%25E6%25B0%2591%25E4%25BC%259A%25E8%25AD%25B0-1266983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201821–22-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201821–22_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201822-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201822–23-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201822–23_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201823-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201823_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201823_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201825-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201825_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201824–26-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201824–26_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 24–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201827-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201827_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201827_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201829-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201829_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201829_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201829_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201827–29-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201827–29_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 27–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201829–30-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201829–30_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201830-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201830_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201830_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201833-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201833_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201833_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018250-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018250_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201833,_238–39-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201833,_238–39_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 33, 238–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201834-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201834_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201834_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201834_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201834_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201875–107-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201875–107_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 75–107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201851-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201851_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201850-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201850_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur201860–62-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur201860–62_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 60–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018248–61-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018248–61_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 248–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018127-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018127_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018109–113-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018109–113_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 109–113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018176–217-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018176–217_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 176–217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur20184-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur20184_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018147–150-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018147–150_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 147–150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur2018150–152-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur2018150–152_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2018">Kapur 2018</a>, pp. 150–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapur202217-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur202217_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur202217_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapur202217_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapur2022">Kapur 2022</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapur2018" class="citation book cs1">Kapur, Nick (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Re5hDwAAQBAJ"><i>Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674984424" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674984424"><bdi>978-0674984424</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan+at+the+Crossroads%3A+Conflict+and+Compromise+after+Anpo&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0674984424&rft.aulast=Kapur&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRe5hDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPackard1966" class="citation book cs1">Packard, George R. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iUPWCgAAQBAJ"><i>Protest in Tokyo: The Security Treaty Crisis of 1960</i></a>. Princeton, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691030524" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691030524"><bdi>978-0691030524</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Protest+in+Tokyo%3A+The+Security+Treaty+Crisis+of+1960&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0691030524&rft.aulast=Packard&rft.aufirst=George+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiUPWCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakemasa2014" class="citation book cs1">Takemasa, Ando (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JchEAQAAQBAJ&dq=%22anpo+protests%22&pg=PT38"><i>Japan's New Left Movements</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203069554" title="Special:BookSources/9780203069554"><bdi>9780203069554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+New+Left+Movements&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780203069554&rft.aulast=Takemasa&rft.aufirst=Ando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJchEAQAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522anpo%2Bprotests%2522%26pg%3DPT38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews2016" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, William (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0CwpDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Anpo+protests%22&pg=PT40"><i>Dissenting Japan: A History of Japanese Radicalism and Counterculture from 1945 to Fukushima</i></a>. Hurst. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84904-919-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84904-919-1"><bdi>978-1-84904-919-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dissenting+Japan%3A+A+History+of+Japanese+Radicalism+and+Counterculture+from+1945+to+Fukushima&rft.pub=Hurst&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-84904-919-1&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0CwpDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Anpo%2Bprotests%2522%26pg%3DPT40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Journals_and_Articles">Journals and Articles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anpo_protests&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Journals and Articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesty2012" class="citation web cs1">Jesty, Justin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://visualizingcultures.mit.edu/tokyo_1960/anp2_essay01.html">"Tokyo 1960: Days of Rage and Grief Hamaya Hiroshi's Photos of the Anti-Security-Treaty Protests"</a>. <i>MIT Visualizing Cultures</i>. <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MIT+Visualizing+Cultures&rft.atitle=Tokyo+1960%3A+Days+of+Rage+and+Grief+Hamaya+Hiroshi%27s+Photos+of+the+Anti-Security-Treaty+Protests&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Jesty&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvisualizingcultures.mit.edu%2Ftokyo_1960%2Fanp2_essay01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapur2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kapur, Nick (May 25, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/2020/18/Kapur.html">"Japan's Streets of Rage: The 1960 US-Japan Security Treaty Uprising and the Origins of Contemporary Japan"</a>. <i>The Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus</i>. <b>18</b> (11).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Asia+Pacific+Journal%3A+Japan+Focus&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+Streets+of+Rage%3A+The+1960+US-Japan+Security+Treaty+Uprising+and+the+Origins+of+Contemporary+Japan&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=11&rft.date=2020-05-25&rft.aulast=Kapur&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapjjf.org%2F2020%2F18%2FKapur.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapur2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kapur, Nick (July 15, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/article-594.pdf">"The Japanese Student Movement in the Cold War Crucible, 1945-1972"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus</i>. <b>20</b> (14).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Asia+Pacific+Journal%3A+Japan+Focus&rft.atitle=The+Japanese+Student+Movement+in+the+Cold+War+Crucible%2C+1945-1972&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=14&rft.date=2022-07-15&rft.aulast=Kapur&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapjjf.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F10%2Farticle-594.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnpo+protests" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="New_Left_in_Japan" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:New_Left_in_Japan" title="Template:New Left in Japan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:New_Left_in_Japan" title="Template talk:New Left in Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:New_Left_in_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:New Left in Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="New_Left_in_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/New_Left_in_Japan" title="New Left in Japan">New Left in Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anpo protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanrizuka_Struggle" title="Sanrizuka Struggle">Sanrizuka Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931969_Japanese_university_protests" title="1968–1969 Japanese university protests">1968–1969 Japanese university protests</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shinjuku_riot" title="Shinjuku riot">Shinjuku riot</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_guerrilla_concerts" title="Folk guerrilla concerts">Folk guerrilla concerts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Airlines_Flight_351" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Airlines Flight 351">Japan Airlines Flight 351</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asama-Sans%C5%8D_incident" title="Asama-Sansō incident">Asama-Sansō incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_the_Soji-ji_Ossuary" title="Bombing of the Soji-ji Ossuary">Bombing of the Soji-ji Ossuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lod_Airport_massacre" title="Lod Airport massacre">Lod Airport massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_the_Fusetsu_no_Gunzo_and_Institute_of_Northern_Cultures" title="Bombing of the Fusetsu no Gunzo and Institute of Northern Cultures">Bombing of the Fusetsu no Gunzo and Institute of Northern Cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Airlines_Flight_404" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Airlines Flight 404">Japan Airlines Flight 404</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries_bombing" title="1974 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries bombing">1974 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_French_Embassy_attack_in_The_Hague" title="1974 French Embassy attack in The Hague">1974 French Embassy attack in The Hague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1975_AIA_building_hostage_crisis" title="1975 AIA building hostage crisis">1975 AIA building hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Airlines_Flight_472_(1977)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Airlines Flight 472 (1977)">Japan Airlines Flight 472</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michiko_Kanba" title="Michiko Kanba">Michiko Kanba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kan%27ichi_Kuroda" title="Kan'ichi Kuroda">Kan'ichi Kuroda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuneo_Mori" title="Tsuneo Mori">Tsuneo Mori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiroko_Nagata" title="Hiroko Nagata">Hiroko Nagata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makoto_Oda" title="Makoto Oda">Makoto Oda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryu_Ota" title="Ryu Ota">Ryū Ōta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusako_Shigenobu" title="Fusako Shigenobu">Fusako Shigenobu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takaya_Shiomi" title="Takaya Shiomi">Takaya Shiomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsu_Tanaka" title="Mitsu Tanaka">Mitsu Tanaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsuko_Tokoro" title="Mitsuko Tokoro">Mitsuko Tokoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Yoshimoto" title="Takaaki Yoshimoto">Takaaki Yoshimoto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Insurrectionary</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Anti-Japan_Armed_Front" title="East Asia Anti-Japan Armed Front">East Asia Anti-Japan Armed Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Socialist_Youth_League,_Liberation_Faction" title="Japan Socialist Youth League, Liberation Faction">Japan Socialist Youth League, Liberation Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_Faction_(Japan)" title="Red Army Faction (Japan)">Red Army Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Red_Army" title="Japanese Red Army">Japanese Red Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Red_Army" title="United Red Army">United Red Army</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Multi-tendency</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beheiren" title="Beheiren">Beheiren (Citizen's League for Peace in Vietnam)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengakuren" title="Zengakuren">Zengakuren</a> <small> (post–1958)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenky%C5%8Dt%C5%8D" title="Zenkyōtō">Zenkyōtō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Trotskyist</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_League_(Japan)" title="Communist League (Japan)">Communist League (Japan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Revolutionary_Communist_League" title="Japan Revolutionary Communist League">Japan Revolutionary Communist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_League,_National_Committee" title="Revolutionary Communist League, National Committee">Japan Revolutionary Communist League, National Committee (Central Core Faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Revolutionary_Communist_League_(Revolutionary_Marxist_Faction)" title="Japan Revolutionary Communist League (Revolutionary Marxist Faction)">Japan Revolutionary Communist League (Revolutionary Marxist Faction)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Ideological</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_Revolution_Theory" title="Ainu Revolution Theory">Ainu Revolution Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japaneseism" title="Anti-Japaneseism">Anti-Japaneseism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-criticism_(Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-criticism (Marxism–Leninism)">Self-criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement_in_Asia#Japan" title="Women's liberation movement in Asia">Women's liberation (Japan)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">International</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Representation in media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Film</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Night_and_Fog_in_Japan" title="Night and Fog in Japan">Night and Fog in Japan</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_of_the_Angels" title="Ecstasy of the Angels">Ecstasy of the Angels</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/69_(film)" title="69 (film)">69</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_Red_Army_(film)" title="United Red Army (film)">United Red Army</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_Revolution_(2010_film)" title="Children of the Revolution (2010 film)">Children of the Revolution</a></i> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Literature</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/69_(novel)" title="69 (novel)">69</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hear_the_Wind_Sing" title="Hear the Wind Sing">Hear the Wind Sing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Wood_(novel)" title="Norwegian Wood (novel)">Norwegian Wood</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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