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doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_the_doctor's_and_master's_degrees_and_the_licentiate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_the_bachelor's_degree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_the_bachelor's_degree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Emergence of the bachelor's degree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_the_bachelor's_degree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_the_terminology_of_degrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_the_terminology_of_degrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Evolution of the terminology of degrees </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_the_terminology_of_degrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degrees_awarded_by_institutions_other_than_universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degrees_awarded_by_institutions_other_than_universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degrees_awarded_by_institutions_other_than_universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_dress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_dress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Academic dress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_dress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_on_granting_and_use_of_degrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_on_granting_and_use_of_degrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Laws on granting and use of degrees </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_on_granting_and_use_of_degrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indicating_earned_degrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indicating_earned_degrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Indicating earned degrees </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indicating_earned_degrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online_degree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_degree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Online degree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_degree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degree_systems_by_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degree_systems_by_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Degree systems by regions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Degree_systems_by_regions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Degree systems by regions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Degree_systems_by_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bangladesh,_India_and_Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bangladesh,_India_and_Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Bangladesh, India and Pakistan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bangladesh,_India_and_Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Indonesia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sri_Lanka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sri_Lanka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Sri Lanka </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sri_Lanka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tunisia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tunisia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Tunisia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tunisia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 South Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kenya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kenya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Kenya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kenya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Austria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Austria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Belgium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Czech_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Czech_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Czech Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Czech_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Denmark </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.5 Finland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.6 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.7 Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.8 Greece </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.9 Ireland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.10 Italy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.11 Netherlands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Admission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Admission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.11.1 Admission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Admission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-Bologna_phases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Bologna_phases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.11.2 Pre-Bologna phases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Bologna_phases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bachelor/master_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bachelor/master_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.11.3 Bachelor/master structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bachelor/master_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Using_academic_titles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Using_academic_titles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.11.4 Using academic titles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Using_academic_titles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.12 Norway </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.13 Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia,_Ukraine_and_some_other_former_USSR_republics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia,_Ukraine_and_some_other_former_USSR_republics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.14 Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia,_Ukraine_and_some_other_former_USSR_republics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.15 Spain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.16 Sweden </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.17 Switzerland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.18 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.18.1 England, Wales and Northern Ireland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.18.2 Scotland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quebec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quebec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1.1 Quebec </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quebec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Current_levels_of_attainment_of_degrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_levels_of_attainment_of_degrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3.1 Current levels of attainment of degrees </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_levels_of_attainment_of_degrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perceptions_of_the_value_of_a_degree_in_the_US" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceptions_of_the_value_of_a_degree_in_the_US"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3.2 Perceptions of the value of a degree in the US </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perceptions_of_the_value_of_a_degree_in_the_US-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.2 New Zealand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Argentina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argentina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.1 Argentina </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argentina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.2 Brazil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colombia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colombia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.3 Colombia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colombia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.4 Chile </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Venezuela" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venezuela"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.5 Venezuela </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venezuela-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pontifical_universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pontifical_universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Pontifical universities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pontifical_universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Academic degree</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" > 58 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="شهادة جامعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شهادة جامعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmi_d%C9%99r%C9%99c%C9%99" title="Elmi dərəcə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elmi dərəcə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF" title="উচ্চশিক্ষায়তনিক উপাধি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উচ্চশিক্ষায়তনিক উপাধি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Навуковая ступень – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навуковая ступень" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8A%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%91%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Научни степени и академични длъжности в България – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Научни степени и академични длъжности в България" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grau_acad%C3%A8mic" title="Grau acadèmic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Grau acadèmic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademick%C3%BD_titul" title="Akademický titul – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Akademický titul" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradd_academaidd" title="Gradd academaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gradd academaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademisk_grad" title="Akademisk grad – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Akademisk grad" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademischer_Grad" title="Akademischer Grad – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Akademischer Grad" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akadeemiline_kraad" title="Akadeemiline kraad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Akadeemiline kraad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADtulo_acad%C3%A9mico" title="Título académico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Título académico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademia_titolo" title="Akademia titolo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Akademia titolo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradu_(hezkuntza)" title="Gradu (hezkuntza) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gradu (hezkuntza)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="مدرک دانشگاهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مدرک دانشگاهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_universitaire" title="Grade universitaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grade universitaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grao_acad%C3%A9mico" title="Grao académico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Grao académico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%99%EC%9C%84" title="학위 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="학위" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Գիտական աստիճան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտական աստիճան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelar_akademik" title="Gelar akademik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gelar akademik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titolo_di_studio_universitario" title="Titolo di studio universitario – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Titolo di studio universitario" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8_%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%99" title="תואר אקדמי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תואר אקדמי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF" title="ಪದವಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪದವಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ғылыми дәрежелер мен атақтар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылыми дәрежелер мен атақтар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradus_academicus" title="Gradus academicus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gradus academicus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akad%C4%93miskais_gr%C4%81ds" title="Akadēmiskais grāds – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Akadēmiskais grāds" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademinis_laipsnis" title="Akademinis laipsnis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Akademinis laipsnis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1nyos_fokozat" title="Tudományos fokozat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudományos fokozat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Академска диплома – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Академска диплома" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="അക്കാദമിക ഡിഗ്രികൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അക്കാദമിക ഡിഗ്രികൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%87" title="شهادة جامعيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شهادة جامعيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijazah_akademik" title="Ijazah akademik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ijazah akademik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Fk-%C3%B4i" title="Hŏk-ôi – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hŏk-ôi" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Академийн зэрэг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Академийн зэрэг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academische_graad" title="Academische graad – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Academische graad" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E4%BD%8D" title="学位 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="学位" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademisk_grad" title="Akademisk grad – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Akademisk grad" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademisk_grad" title="Akademisk grad – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Akademisk grad" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmiy_daraja" title="Ilmiy daraja – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ilmiy daraja" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grau_acad%C3%A9mico" title="Grau académico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Grau académico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grad_academic" title="Grad academic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Grad academic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Учёная степень – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Учёная степень" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Academic degree" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%8B%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%92" title="උපාධි – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="උපාධි" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Academic degree" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademick%C3%BD_titul" title="Akademický titul – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Akademický titul" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korkeakoulututkinto" title="Korkeakoulututkinto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Korkeakoulututkinto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Examen" title="Examen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Examen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF)" title="பட்டம் (கல்வி) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பட்டம் (கல்வி)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%89%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%A4_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%83%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="ఉన్నత విద్య దృవపత్రము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఉన్నత విద్య దృవపత్రము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademik_%C3%BCnvan" title="Akademik ünvan – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Akademik ünvan" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Науковий ступінь – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Науковий ступінь" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85" title="اسناد تعلیم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسناد تعلیم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%8Dc_v%E1%BB%8B" title="Học vị – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Học vị" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E4%BD%8D" title="學位 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="學位" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9D" title="אקאדעמישער דיפלאם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אקאדעמישער דיפלאם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E4%BD%8D" title="學位 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="學位" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E4%BD%8D" title="学位 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="学位" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">College or university diploma</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_ranks" title="List of academic ranks">Academic ranks</a>.</div> An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a>, usually at a <a href="/wiki/College" title="College">college</a> or <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a>. These institutions often offer degrees at various levels, usually divided into <a href="/wiki/Undergraduate" class="mw-redirect" title="Undergraduate">undergraduate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate" class="mw-redirect" title="Postgraduate">postgraduate</a> degrees. The most common undergraduate degree is the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a>, although some educational systems offer lower-level undergraduate degrees such as <a href="/wiki/Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">associate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foundation_degree" title="Foundation degree">foundation</a> degrees. Common postgraduate degrees include <a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">engineer's degrees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degrees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorates</a>. In the UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system, <a href="/wiki/Honours_degree" title="Honours degree">honours degrees</a> are divided into classes: first, second (broken into upper second, or 2.1, and lower second, or 2.2) and third class. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meeting_of_doctors_at_the_university_of_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Meeting_of_doctors_at_the_university_of_Paris.jpg/190px-Meeting_of_doctors_at_the_university_of_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Meeting_of_doctors_at_the_university_of_Paris.jpg/285px-Meeting_of_doctors_at_the_university_of_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Meeting_of_doctors_at_the_university_of_Paris.jpg/380px-Meeting_of_doctors_at_the_university_of_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="1522" /></a><figcaption>Meeting of doctors at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> (16th-century miniature)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_the_doctor's_and_master's_degrees_and_the_licentiate">Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">Licentiate (degree)</a></div> The doctorate (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>: doceo, "I teach") first appeared in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a> as a license to teach (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>: licentia docendi) at a medieval university.<a href="#cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Doctor,_doctoratus-1">[1]</a> Its roots can be traced to the <a href="/wiki/Early_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early church">early church</a> when the term "doctor" referred to the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Church fathers">church fathers</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> authorities who taught and interpreted the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Doctor,_doctoratus-1">[1]</a> The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic church">church</a> which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee. The <a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Third Council of the Lateran">Third Council of the Lateran</a> of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic.<a href="#cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Licentia-2">[2]</a> This right remained a point of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a> to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi).<a href="#cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Licentia-2">[2]</a> While the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureus), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the <a href="/wiki/Magister_(degree)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magister (degree)">Magister</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate</a>, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.<a href="#cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Licentia-2">[2]</a> In universities, doctoral training was a form of <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Today the terms "master" (from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> magister, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'teacher'), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Medieval university</a>, they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The earliest <a href="/wiki/Doctoral_degrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctoral degrees">doctoral degrees</a> (<a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> – Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> – Legum Doctor (LL.D., later D.C.L.) and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> – Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all higher University study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> were then called "<a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> is a much later creation and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/George_Makdisi" title="George Makdisi">George Makdisi</a> theorizes that the <a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">ijazah</a> issued in medieval Islamic <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasas</a> in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities.<a href="#cite_note-Makdisi-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Guillaume" title="Alfred Guillaume">Alfred Guillaume</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Alatas-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Syed_Farid_al-Attas" title="Syed Farid al-Attas">Syed Farid al-Attas</a><a href="#cite_note-Alatas-6">[6]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Devin_J._Stewart" title="Devin J. Stewart">Devin J. Stewart</a> agree that there is a resemblance between the ijazah and the university degree.<a href="#cite_note-stewart-7">[7]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Toby_Huff" title="Toby Huff">Toby Huff</a> and others reject Makdisi's theory.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Devin_J._Stewart" title="Devin J. Stewart">Devin J. Stewart</a> finds that the ijazat al-ifta, license to teach <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a> and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. A key difference was that the granting authority of the ijaza was an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity.<a href="#cite_note-stewart3-12">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, regarded as the oldest university in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, was the first institution to confer the degree of <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil Law</a> in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a> used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by the <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</a> universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, as well as the ancient <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">St Andrews</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen" title="University of Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_the_bachelor's_degree">Emergence of the bachelor's degree</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Emergence of the bachelor's degree">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">medieval European universities</a>, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the <a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">quadrivium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>), together known as the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Arts">Liberal Arts</a>, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a>. The term "bachelor" comes from the Latin baccalaureus, a term previously used to describe a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a>. Further study and, in particular, successful participation in, and moderation of, <a href="/wiki/Disputation" title="Disputation">disputations</a> would earn one the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a> degree, from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <a href="/wiki/Magister_(degree)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magister (degree)">magister</a>, "master" (typically indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a> and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degree in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> word "graduate", which is based on the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> gradus ("step"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_the_terminology_of_degrees">Evolution of the terminology of degrees</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Evolution of the terminology of degrees">edit</a>]</div> The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">arts</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> became known as "masters", but those in <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a>. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">dissertation</a> is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a> (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world. The <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The <a href="/wiki/Baccalaur%C3%A9at" title="Baccalauréat">baccalauréat</a> (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have completed their <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">secondary education</a> and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a licence, much as the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> had a similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato". The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was "Licenciado", (although there were a few 3-year associate degrees called "diplomaturas", from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura). The highest level was "Doctor". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degrees_awarded_by_institutions_other_than_universities">Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities">edit</a>]</div> In the past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lambeth_degree" title="Lambeth degree">Lambeth degrees</a> are still awarded by the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Peter%27s_Pence_Act_1533" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter's Pence Act 1533">Peter's Pence Act 1533</a>, which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by the Pope.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Among educational institutions, <a href="/wiki/St_David%27s_College,_Lampeter" class="mw-redirect" title="St David's College, Lampeter">St David's College, Lampeter</a>, was granted limited degree awarding powers by <a href="/wiki/Royal_charter" title="Royal charter">royal charter</a> in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. The <a href="/wiki/University_College_of_North_Staffordshire" class="mw-redirect" title="University College of North Staffordshire">University College of North Staffordshire</a> was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university (as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Keele" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Keele">University of Keele</a>) until 1962. Following the <a href="/wiki/Education_Reform_Act_1988" title="Education Reform Act 1988">Education Reform Act 1988</a>, many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree-awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, many of which are now effectively universities in their own right.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_dress">Academic dress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Academic dress">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Academic_dress" title="Academic dress">Academic dress</a></div> In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laws_on_granting_and_use_of_degrees">Laws on granting and use of degrees</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Laws on granting and use of degrees">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unaccredited_institutions_of_higher_education" title="Unaccredited institutions of higher education">Unaccredited institutions of higher education</a></div> In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word university in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> the United Kingdom<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> and Israel.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from a bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a> laws.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indicating_earned_degrees">Indicating earned degrees</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Indicating earned degrees">edit</a>]</div> Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a <a href="/wiki/Pre-nominal_letters#Academic_degrees" title="Pre-nominal letters">pre-nominal title</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-nominal_letters#Etiquette_for_higher_educational_qualifications" title="Post-nominal letters">post-nominal letters</a>, a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries. Depending on the culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at <a href="/wiki/Honours_degree" title="Honours degree">honours</a> level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> For member institutions of the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Commonwealth_Universities" title="Association of Commonwealth Universities">Association of Commonwealth Universities</a>, there is a standard list of abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. In practice, many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the universities concerned.<a href="#cite_note-ACU-23">[23]</a> For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a> respectively,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage,<a href="#cite_note-OxCalendar-26">[26]</a> particularly in order to distinguish the <a href="/wiki/Oxbridge_MA" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxbridge MA">Oxbridge MA</a> from an earned MA.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for <a href="/wiki/Lambeth_degree" title="Lambeth degree">Lambeth degrees</a> (awarded by the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>),<a href="#cite_note-OxCalendar-26">[26]</a> 'Dunelm' for <a href="/wiki/Durham_University" title="Durham University">Durham University</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> 'Ebor' for the <a href="/wiki/University_of_York" title="University of York">University of York</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> and 'Exon' for the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Exeter" title="University of Exeter">University of Exeter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_universities_of_Scotland" title="Ancient universities of Scotland">Ancient universities of Scotland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a> have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin. (See <a href="/wiki/Universities_in_the_United_Kingdom#Post-nominal_abbreviations" title="Universities in the United Kingdom">Universities in the United Kingdom § Post-nominal abbreviations</a> for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.) Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/University_of_York" title="University of York">University of York</a> in the UK and <a href="/wiki/York_University" title="York University">York University</a> in Canada or <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_University" title="Newcastle University">Newcastle University</a> in the UK and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Newcastle_(Australia)" title="University of Newcastle (Australia)">University of Newcastle</a> in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include a country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook.<a href="#cite_note-ACU-23">[23]</a> Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a> in the US and places following American usage, but <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a> in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a>, BS/BSc and MS/MSc for <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a>, MD for <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> and PhD for <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Online_degree">Online degree</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Online degree">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Online_degree" title="Online degree">Online degree</a></div> An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Distance_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Distance learning">distance learning</a> basis through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Degree_systems_by_regions">Degree systems by regions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Degree systems by regions">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Academic_degree" title="Special:EditPage/Academic degree">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Academic+degree%22">"Academic degree"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Academic+degree%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Academic+degree%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Academic+degree%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Academic+degree%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Academic+degree%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (July 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bangladesh,_India_and_Pakistan">Bangladesh, India and Pakistan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bangladesh, India and Pakistan">edit</a>]</div> Bangladesh and India mostly follow the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">colonial era</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> system for the classification of degrees,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> however, Pakistan has recently switched[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] to the US model of a two-year associate degree and a four-year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, may confer a Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'arts' but are nowadays considered a separate stream, with degrees of Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural science (<a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a>, etc.); the corresponding degrees are Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Science (MSc). <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information Technology</a> degrees are conferred specially in the field of <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, and include Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degree in India follows two nomenclatures, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a> (B.Eng.) and <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Technology" title="Bachelor of Technology">Bachelor of Technology</a> (B.Tech.). Both represent bachelor's degree in <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> In Pakistan, engineering degrees are <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a> (B.E.) and <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Science in Engineering">Bachelor of Science in Engineering</a> (B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are the same in <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>, duration and pattern, and differ only in nomenclature. The engineering degree in Bangladesh is a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Science in Engineering">Bachelor of Science in Engineering</a> (B.Sc. Engineering). Other degrees include the medical degree (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine_%26_Bachelor_of_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery</a> (MBBS)), dental degree (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Dental_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Dental Surgery">Bachelor of Dental Surgery</a> (BDS)) and computer application degrees (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Computer_Application" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Computer Application">Bachelor of Computer Application</a> (BCA)) and <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Computer_Application" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Computer Application">Master of Computer Application</a> (MCA). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Indonesia">edit</a>]</div> Indonesia follows the colonial Dutch system for the classification of degrees. However, Indonesia has been dropping the Dutch titles and developing its own distinctions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sri_Lanka">Sri Lanka</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sri Lanka">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, like many other commonwealth countries, follows the British system, but with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the <a href="/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(Sri_Lanka)" title="University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka)">University Grants Commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tunisia">Tunisia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tunisia">edit</a>]</div> Tunisia's educational grading system, ranging from elementary school to Ph.D. programs, operates on a scale of 0 to 20. The minimum score for passing is set at 10 out of 20. This numerical system exclusively evaluates a student's academic accomplishments, serving as the determinant for admission into advanced programs. For instance, a student's grades obtained for their bachelor's degree are considered when they apply for a Master's program. Level 4 courses, which include the first year of a Bachelor's program or a <a href="/wiki/Higher_National_Certificate" title="Higher National Certificate">Higher National Certificate</a> (HNC), may allow students to enter directly into the second year of a Bachelor's program, provided that the course they completed is the same as the one they are applying for. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: South Africa">edit</a>]</div> In South Africa, grades (also known as "marks") are presented as a percentage, with anything below 50% considered a failure. Students who receive a failing grade may have the opportunity to rewrite the exam, depending on the criteria established by their institution. Degrees in almost any field of study can be pursued at one of the institutions in the country, with certain institutions being known for excelling in specific fields. Major fields of study across the country include <a href="/wiki/Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">Commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a>. The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> has developed a credit-based system for degrees, with different levels of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) ratings corresponding to each degree level. For example, an undergraduate degree in Science is rated at NQF level 6, while an additional year of study in that discipline would result in an NQF level 8 (honours degree) rating. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kenya">Kenya</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Kenya">edit</a>]</div> In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree is pursued after students have completed four years of secondary school education and attained at least a C+ (55–59%) on the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Students pursuing a degree in engineering, such as B.Sc. <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical Engineering">Mechanical Engineering</a> or B.Sc. <a href="/wiki/Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical and Electronics Engineering">Electrical and Electronics Engineering</a>, are required to join programs that are accredited by the Engineers Board of Kenya and the Commission for University Education. The B.Sc. degree in engineering typically takes five years to complete. A degree in medicine or surgery may take six to seven years, while a degree in <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> or management takes around four years. For students pursuing a master's degree, they must have completed an undergraduate degree and attained at least a second-class honours upper division (60–69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master's degree programs take two years to complete. In an engineering master's degree program, students are typically required to publish at least one <a href="/wiki/Scientific_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific paper">scientific paper</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Peer-reviewed_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-reviewed journal">peer-reviewed journal</a>. To pursue a doctor of philosophy degree, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. They are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for a minimum of three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer-reviewed journals relevant to their area of study. Currently, Kenya is implementing a Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that follows a 2–6–3–3 education system to replace the existing 8–4–4 system which allows confirmation of undergraduate degrees upon successful completion. The CBC system was introduced in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bologna_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna process">Bologna process</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Higher_Education_Area" title="European Higher Education Area">European Higher Education Area</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_Qualifications_Framework" title="European Qualifications Framework">European Qualifications Framework</a></div> Since the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Recognition_of_Qualifications_concerning_Higher_Education_in_the_European_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region">Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region</a> in 1997 and the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna Declaration">Bologna Declaration</a> in 1999, higher education systems in Europe have been undergoing harmonisation through the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Process" title="Bologna Process">Bologna Process</a>, which is based on a three-cycle hierarchy of degrees: <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor's">Bachelor's</a>/<a href="/wiki/Licence" class="mw-redirect" title="Licence">Licence</a> – <a href="/wiki/Master%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Master's">Master's</a> – <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a>. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in some countries and is combined with other elements such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Credit_Transfer_and_Accumulation_System" title="European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System">European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System</a> (ECTS) and the use of <a href="/wiki/Diploma_Supplement" title="Diploma Supplement">Diploma Supplements</a> to make comparisons between qualifications easier. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was formally established in 2010 and, as of September 2016, has 50 members.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies between countries. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the <a href="/wiki/QF-EHEA" title="QF-EHEA">overarching framework</a>. In 38 countries, <a href="/wiki/European_Credit_Transfer_and_Accumulation_System" title="European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System">ECTS credits</a> are used for all higher education programmes, and 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements. Only 11 countries have included all the major points of the <a href="/wiki/Lisbon_Recognition_Convention" title="Lisbon Recognition Convention">Lisbon Recognition Convention</a> in national legislation.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Since 2008, the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> has been developing the <a href="/wiki/European_Qualifications_Framework" title="European Qualifications Framework">European Qualifications Framework</a> (EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a>, the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of the EHEA.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Austria">Austria</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Austria">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees: <ul><li>the traditional two-cycle system of <a href="/wiki/Magister_degree" title="Magister degree">Magister</a>/<a href="/wiki/Diplom" title="Diplom">Diplom</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a>, and</li> <li>the three cycle system of <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">Bachelor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a> as defined by the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna process">Bologna process</a>.</li></ul> The two-cycle degree system was phased out by 2010, with a few exceptions. However, some of the established degree naming has been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Belgium">Belgium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Belgium">edit</a>]</div> While higher education is regulated by the three <a href="/wiki/Communities,_regions_and_language_areas_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium">communities of Belgium</a>, all have common and comparable systems of degrees that were adapted to the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Process" title="Bologna Process">Bologna structure</a> during the <a href="/wiki/2000s" title="2000s">2000s</a>. The primary 3-cycle structure is called BMD (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate; <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Bachelier-Master-Doctorat or <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: Bachelor-Master-Doctoraat). In the first cycle, the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">Bachelor's degree</a> is issued after 180 <a href="/wiki/ECTS_grading_scale" title="ECTS grading scale">ECTS</a> (3 years, <a href="/wiki/European_Qualifications_Framework" title="European Qualifications Framework">EQF</a> level 6). Other first cycle degrees include the one-year <a href="/w/index.php?title=Advanced_Bachelor%27s_degree_(Belgium)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Advanced Bachelor's degree (Belgium) (page does not exist)">Advanced Bachelor's degree</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelier_de_sp%C3%A9cialisation" class="extiw" title="fr:Bachelier de spécialisation">fr</a>; <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_na_bachelor" class="extiw" title="nl:Bachelor na bachelor">nl</a>] degree (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Bachelier de spécialisation, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Specialized Bachelor'; <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: Bachelor-na-bachelor, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Bachelor-after-bachelor') and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes. Bachelor's degrees are followed in the second cycle (<a href="/wiki/European_Qualifications_Framework" title="European Qualifications Framework">EQF</a> level 7) by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master%27s_degree_(Belgium)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master's degree (Belgium) (page does not exist)">Master's degrees</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_(Belgique)" class="extiw" title="fr:Master (Belgique)">fr</a>] that last two years, completing an extra 120 <a href="/wiki/ECTS_grading_scale" title="ECTS grading scale">ECTS</a> credits. The master's degree can be followed by an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Advanced_Master%27s_degree_(Belgium)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Advanced Master's degree (Belgium) (page does not exist)">Advanced Master's degree</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_de_sp%C3%A9cialisation_(Belgique)" class="extiw" title="fr:Master de spécialisation (Belgique)">fr</a>; <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_na_master" class="extiw" title="nl:Master na master">nl</a>] (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Master de spécialisation, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Specialized Master'; <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: Master-na-master, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Master-after-master') that lasts one year (60 ECTS). The third cycle of Belgium's higher education is covered by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doctorate_(Belgium)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doctorate (Belgium) (page does not exist)">Doctorate</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorat_(Belgique)" class="extiw" title="fr:Doctorat (Belgique)">fr</a>] degree (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Doctorat; <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: Doctoraat) that covers a 3-to-7-year-long <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>, depending on whether the doctoral student has teaching responsibilities in addition to conducting research or not (typically 6 years for teaching assistants and 4 years for research-only mandates). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Czech_Republic">Czech Republic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Czech Republic">edit</a>]</div> The Czech Republic has implemented the Bologna process, and functionally has three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master). The Czech Republic also has voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) which are achieved after passing an additional exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, but instead attend a six year program and obligatory exam they achieve the title MUDr. (equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">MD</a> degree in the United States of America)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>], or MDDr. for dentists and MVDr. for <a href="/wiki/Veterinarian" title="Veterinarian">veterinary physicians</a>. They can also get a "big doctorate" (<a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Ph.D.</a>) after another three or four years of study. Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of letters (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before the person's name, and Doctor's degrees (Ph.D.) are listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). The Czech Republic previously had more <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Czech_Republic#Tertiary_education" title="Education in the Czech Republic">degrees</a> that were awarded.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Denmark">Denmark</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Denmark">edit</a>]</div> Before the adoption of the Bologna Process, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> was equivalent to a master's degree (kandidatgrad). Officially, a bachelor's degree was always obtained after 3 years' university studies. Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adopted, so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length. As opposed to academic bachelor's degrees, they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree is 180, 210, or 240 ECTS-points.<a href="#cite_note-ufm.dk-47">[47]</a> The academic degrees available at universities are:<a href="#cite_note-ufm.dk-47">[47]</a> <ul><li>bachelor i <field of study> (bachelor's degree = 180 ECTS-points)</li> <li>cand. <Latin abbreviation of field of study> (master's degree = 120 ECTS-points, except Medicine, which is 180 ECTS-points and Veterinary Medicine, which is 150 ECTS-points)</li> <li>ph.d. (PhD degree = normally 180 ECTS-points)</li> <li>dr. <Latin abbreviation of field of study> (higher doctoral degree = normally after a minimum of 5 years of individual and original research)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Finland">Finland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Finland">edit</a>]</div> Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_technology" title="Institute of technology">polytechnics</a>, many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS).<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> With the exception of a few fields, such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees (kandidaatti / kandidat), Master's degrees (maisteri / magister) and doctoral degrees (lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen and tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen). In most fields, the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier, the degree of licentiate is an independent academic degree but completing the degree of doctor does not require completion of a licentiate degree. The polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees; the degree titles are distinct from the titles used for university degrees. In general, students who are admitted to bachelor studies at a university have the right to continue to studies at master level. At polytechnics, the right to continue to master-level studies has to be applied for separately and there is also a work experience requirement. The majority of master's degree holders have graduated from university. The degrees awarded by the universities and polytechnics are at par by law, but the content and orientation of studies is different. A master's degree obtained at a polytechnic gives the same academic right to continue studies at doctoral level as a master's degree obtained at a university. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Degree</th> <th colspan="10">Diploma </th></tr> <tr> <th>Doctorate </th> <td colspan="10" style="text-align:center;">Doctoral diploma </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Master</th> <th colspan="3">Universities</th> <th colspan="7">Grandes écoles or colleges (écoles supérieures) </th></tr> <tr> <th>General</th> <th>Medical and Paramedical</th> <th>Accounting</th> <th>Art</th> <th>Business</th> <th>Engineering</th> <th>Military</th> <th>Public Affairs</th> <th>Veterinary Science </th> <th>Others </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree_(France)" title="Master's degree (France)">Master's diploma</a> <a href="/wiki/Dipl%C3%B4me_d%27%C3%A9tudes_approfondies" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplôme d'études approfondies">DEA</a> <a href="/wiki/Dipl%C3%B4me_d%27%C3%A9tudes_sup%C3%A9rieures_sp%C3%A9cialis%C3%A9es" title="Diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées">DESS</a> (both diplomas phased out and no longer delivered) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diplôme de formation approfondie (<a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontology">odontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a>) and diplôme d'État de sage-femme<a href="#cite_note-D612-34-50">[50]</a> Diplôme d'État de masseur-kinésithérapeute (<a href="/wiki/Physiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiotherapy">physiotherapy</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diplôme supérieur de comptabilité et de gestion<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Architect State Diploma<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Diplôme national supérieur d'arts plastiques<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Diploma of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_arts_d%C3%A9coratifs" title="École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs">École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Diplôme national supérieur d'expression plastique<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Graduate diplomas of the <a href="/wiki/Conservatoire_national_sup%C3%A9rieur_de_musique_et_de_danse_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris">Conservatoire de Paris</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diplomas of the <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Paris-Dauphine" class="mw-redirect" title="Université Paris-Dauphine">Université Paris-Dauphine</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Diplomas of some business schools<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a> Diplôme de management et contrôle du trafic aérien and diplôme d'ingénierie des systèmes électroniques de la sécurité aérienne of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_de_l%27aviation_civile" title="École nationale de l'aviation civile">École nationale de l'aviation civile</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diploma of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_sp%C3%A9ciale_militaire_de_Saint-Cyr" title="École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr">École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diploma of an <a href="/wiki/Institut_d%27%C3%A9tudes_politiques" class="mw-redirect" title="Institut d'études politiques">institut d'études politiques</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diplôme d'études fondamentales vétérinaires<a href="#cite_note-D612-34-50">[50]</a> </td> <td>Some grande école and college <a href="/wiki/Accredited_diploma_(France)" title="Accredited diploma (France)">accredited diplomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree_(France)" title="Master's degree (France)">master's degrees</a> (<a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Journalism_school" title="Journalism school">journalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film_studies" title="Film studies">film</a>, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Licence and bachelor </th> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Licence_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Licence (France)">Licenciate's diploma</a> <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Technical_Studies_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Technical Studies (France)">Bachelor of Technical Studies (BUT)</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diplôme de formation générale (<a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">midwifery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontology">odontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a>)<a href="#cite_note-D612-32-2-62">[62]</a> Nurse State Diploma <a href="/wiki/Ergotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergotherapy">Ergotherapist</a> State Diploma<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diplôme de comptabilité et de gestion<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diplôme d'études en architecture<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Undergraduate diplomas of the <a href="/wiki/Conservatoire_national_sup%C3%A9rieur_de_musique_et_de_danse_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris">Conservatoire de Paris</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Diploma of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_militaire_interarmes" title="École militaire interarmes">École militaire interarmes</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>Some grande école and college <a href="/wiki/Accredited_diploma_(France)" title="Accredited diploma (France)">accredited diplomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Licentiate%27s_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Licentiate's degree">licenciate's degree</a> (<a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Journalism_school" title="Journalism school">journalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film_studies" title="Film studies">film</a>, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Baccalaureate </th> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="10">Baccalauréat's diploma </td></tr></tbody></table> The French national education system makes a distinction between a diplôme national ("national degree") and <a href="/wiki/Dipl%C3%B4me_universitaire" title="Diplôme universitaire">diplôme universitaire</a> ("university degree"). The former, which are considered to have a higher status, are controlled by the state and issued by universities on behalf of the responsible ministry; the latter are controlled and granted by the universities themselves.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Private_universities_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Private universities in France">private universities</a> and schools may be recognised by the state with a diplôme visé ("recognised degree") and then, after five years of recognition, have their degrees validated by the state, the validation having to be renewed every six years.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Historically, academic degrees were orientated towards research, and the <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">vocational education</a> system awarded only diplomas. Since the implementation of the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Process" title="Bologna Process">Bologna Process</a> in France, the degree-granting system is being simplified: schools continue to grant their own diplomas, but the state's recognition in degree awarding is more important than before. Diploma courses such as the university <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Technical_Studies_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Technical Studies (France)">Bachelor of Technical Studies</a> (bachelor universitaire de technologie; BUT) are recognised as <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">vocational</a> <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> qualifications worth 180 <a href="/wiki/European_Credit_Transfer_and_Accumulation_System" title="European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System">ECTS</a> credits; the <a href="/wiki/Brevet_de_technicien_sup%C3%A9rieur" title="Brevet de technicien supérieur">Advanced Technician Certificate</a> (brevet de technician supérieur; BTS) is now recognised as a "short cycle" qualification worth 120 <a href="/wiki/European_Credit_Transfer_and_Accumulation_System" title="European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System">ECTS</a> credits, allowing progression from these to academic qualifications.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> However, in France there are diplomas that are not recognised as degrees, such as specific diplomas designed by colleges (écoles supérieures), like the <a href="/wiki/Mast%C3%A8re_sp%C3%A9cialis%C3%A9" title="Mastère spécialisé">mastère spécialisé</a> (accredited by the <a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9rence_des_Grandes_%C3%A9coles" title="Conférence des Grandes écoles">Conférence des Grandes Écoles</a> but not automatically by the French Government). Since 2002, <a href="/wiki/Grande_%C3%A9cole" title="Grande école">grande école</a> diplomas have been able to award a university degree, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sciences_Po" title="Sciences Po">Sciences Po</a> Bachelor, which is a state-<a href="/wiki/Accredited_diploma_(France)" title="Accredited diploma (France)">accredited diploma</a> that awards a bachelor's degree (<a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">Licence</a> in French). The recognised degrees are in three levels, following the <a href="/wiki/QF-EHEA" title="QF-EHEA">Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area</a>. These are the licence (first level), master (second level) and doctorat (third level). All licence degrees take 3 years (180 ECTS credits) and all master's degrees take 2 years (120 ECTS credits). There are also 5-year (300 ECTS credits) <a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">engineer's degrees</a>, which are master's degrees. In addition to the doctorate, which is always a research degree, the Diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médicine and the Diplôme d'Etat de docteur vétérinaire are third level qualifications and recognized as level 7 in EQF.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany">Germany</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</a>]</div> Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four-to-six years either with a <a href="/wiki/Magister_degree" title="Magister degree">Magister</a> degree in <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">arts</a>, or with a <a href="/wiki/Diplom" title="Diplom">Diplom</a> degree in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business administration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>. Those degrees were the first, and at the same time highest, non-<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>/<a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a>-titles in many disciplines before their gradual replacement by other Anglo-Saxon-inspired master's and bachelor's degrees under the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna process">Bologna process</a>. The Magister and Diplom awarded by universities, both of which require a final thesis, are considered equivalent to a master's degree, although the Diplom awarded by a <a href="/wiki/Fachhochschule" title="Fachhochschule">Fachhochschule (university of applied sciences)</a> is at bachelor's degree level.<a href="#cite_note-German_education_system-71">[71]</a> A special kind of examination is the <a href="/wiki/Staatsexamen" title="Staatsexamen">Staatsexamen</a> (State Examination). It is not an academic degree but a government <a href="/wiki/Licensure" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensure">licensing examination</a> that future doctors, dentists, teachers, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyers</a> (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">pharmacists</a> have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for three to six years, depending on the field, before they take the first Staatsexamen. While this is normally at the master's level, a few courses (e.g. primary and lower secondary level teaching), which have a standard study period of three years, are assigned to the bachelor's level.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> After the first Staatsexamen, teachers and lawyers go through a form of <a href="/wiki/Pupillage" title="Pupillage">pupillage</a>, the Vorbereitungsdienst, for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs.<a href="#cite_note-German_education_system-71">[71]</a> At some institutions pharmacists and jurists can choose whether to be awarded the first Staatsexamen or a master's degree (or formerly the Diplom). Since 1999, the traditional degrees have been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's</a> (Bachelor) and <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's</a> (Master) degrees as part of the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_process#Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna process">Bologna process</a>. The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable and to introduce degrees to the German system that take less time to complete (German students typically took five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some universities were initially resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. However, universities had to fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. Enrollment into <a href="/wiki/Diplom" title="Diplom">Diplom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magister_(degree)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magister (degree)">Magister</a> programs is no longer possible at most universities, with a few exceptions. Programs leading to Staatsexamen did not usually make the transition to Bologna degrees. <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorates</a> are issued with various designations, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and <a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">honorary doctorates</a> are often listed, and even used in forms of address, in German-speaking countries. A Diplom, Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. Well-qualified bachelor's graduates can also enrol directly into PhD programs after a procedure to determine their aptitude is administered by the admitting university.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The doctoral degree—such as Dr. rer. nat., Dr. phil. and others—is the highest academic degree in Germany and is generally a research degree. The degree Dr. med. for <a href="/wiki/Medical_doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical doctor">medical doctors</a> has to be viewed differently; medical students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any previously conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write a Diplom, Magister or Master's thesis.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Higher doctorates, such as the D.Sc. degree in the UK, are not present in the German system. However, sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a> is a higher academic qualification—in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Czech Republic—that grants a further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications on an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated, to indicate that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (senior lecturer) in an academic professorship. Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential in securing academic posts in the more traditional fields. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greece">Greece</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Greece">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education in Greece">Higher education in Greece</a></div> In Greece access to university is possible after national exams (Panhellenic Exams). The Greek academic degrees are: <ul><li>Ptychio (EQL Level 6 or bachelor's degree)</li> <li>Diploma (EQL Level 7 or Integrated master's degree)</li> <li>Metaptychiako Diploma Eidikefsis (EQL Level 7 or master's degree)</li> <li>Didaktoriko Diploma (EQL Level 8 or Doctorate)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ireland">Ireland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Ireland">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> operates under a National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school-leaving qualification attained by students is called the Leaving Certificate. It is considered as Level 4–5 in the framework. This qualification is the traditional route of entry into third-level education. There are also Level 5 qualifications in certain vocational subjects (e.g. Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations) awarded by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC). Advanced Certificates at Level 6 are also awarded by FETAC. The Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) awards the following: A <a href="/wiki/Higher_certificate" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher certificate">higher certificate</a> at Level 6; An <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ordinary_bachelor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ordinary bachelor (page does not exist)">ordinary bachelor</a>'s degree at Level 7; An honours bachelor's degree or <a href="/wiki/Higher_diploma" title="Higher diploma">higher diploma</a> at Level 8; A <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> or <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_diploma" title="Postgraduate diploma">postgraduate diploma</a> at Level 9; A <a href="/wiki/Doctoral_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctoral degree">doctoral degree</a> or <a href="/wiki/Higher_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher doctorate">higher doctorate</a> at Level 10.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> These are completed in <a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutes of technology">institutes of technology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Italy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Italy" title="Higher education in Italy">Higher education in Italy</a></div> In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the Diploma di Maturità at 19 years of age, following 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. liceo classico focused on classical subjects, including philosophy, ancient Greek and Latin; liceo scientifico focused on scientific subjects such as maths, chemistry, biology and physics but also including philosophy, ancient Latin and Italian literature; liceo linguistico focused on foreign languages and literature; istituto tecnico focused on practical and theoretical subjects such as mechanics, aerospace, shipbuilding, electronics, computer science, telecommunications, chemistry, biology, fashion industry, food industry, building technology, law and economics). After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests. In 2011, Italy introduced a qualifications framework, known as the Quadro dei Titoli Italiani (QTI), which tied together, in a three-level system, both the new qualifications introduced as part of the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Process" title="Bologna Process">Bologna Process</a> and the older, pre-Bologna qualifications and which covers qualifications from university institutions and higher-education institutions for fine arts, music and dance (AFAM institutions).<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In addition to academic degrees, many professional qualifications are tied to the QTI at the different levels.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The first level, tied to the first cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the <a href="/wiki/Laurea" title="Laurea">laurea</a> (bachelor's degree) in universities and the Diploma accademico di primo livello in AFAM institutions.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_new_quals-77">[77]</a> The older qualifications that map to this level are the Diploma universitario and the Diploma di scuole dirette a fini speciali (SDAFS) from universities, and the Diploma di Conservatorio, Diploma di Istituto Musicale Pareggiato, Diploma dell'Accademia di Belle Arti, Diploma dell'Istituto Superiore delle Industrie Artistiche (ISIA), Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Danza and Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica from AFAM institutions.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_old_quals-78">[78]</a> The laurea is obtained after three years of study (180 ECTS credits) and confers the academic title of dottore;<a href="#cite_note-QTI_new_quals-77">[77]</a> the older university qualifications at this level took two to three years, with the three-year courses conferring the title of dottore.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_old_quals-78">[78]</a> The second level, tied to the second cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the laurea magistrale and the laurea specialistica of university institutions, and the Diploma accademico di secondo livello of AFAM institutions.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_new_quals-77">[77]</a> The old Diploma di laurea is mapped to this level.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_old_quals-78">[78]</a> The Laurea magistrale and the laurea specialistica are obtained after two further years of study (120 ECTS credits) and give the academic title of dottore magistrale.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_new_quals-77">[77]</a> The old Diploma di laurea took four to six years but was accessed directly from school, with a possible reduction by one year for those with a related diploma and also granted the title of dottore magistrale.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_old_quals-78">[78]</a> The third level, tied to the third cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the Dottorato di ricerca from university institutions and the Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca from AFAM institutions.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_new_quals-77">[77]</a> The old Dottorato di ricerca and Diploma di specializzazione are tied to this level.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_old_quals-78">[78]</a> The Dottorato di ricerca, under both new and old systems, takes a minimum of three years after the laurea magistralie/specialistica, and gives the academic titles of Dottore di Ricerca (Dott. Ric.) and PhD.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_new_quals-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-QTI_old_quals-78">[78]</a> The old Diploma di specializzazione took two to six years and gave the academic title of Specialista.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_old_quals-78">[78]</a> Universities in Italy offer a number of other qualifications, including the Master universitario di primo livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 2nd cycle qualification) and the Master universitario di secondo livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 3rd cycle qualification), continuing from the laurea and the laurea magistrale/specialistica, respectively. These do not give access to the PhD. The Diploma di specializzazione, which is offered in a few specific professions, takes two to six years and gives the title of specialista. The Diploma di perfezionamento is a university certificate, aimed at professional training or in specific fields of study, which usually takes one year; it is not allocated a level in the framework.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_other_quals-79">[79]</a> AFAM institutions may offer the Diploma di perfezionamento o Master and Diploma accademico di specializzazione. These are one-year and two-year qualifications, respectively, and may be offered at the second cycle or third cycle level, distinguished by adding (I) or (II) after the qualification name. Higher schools for language mediators offer the Diploma di mediatore linguistico, a first-cycle degree that takes three years (180 ECTS credits), and which gives access to the laurea specialistica. Specialisation institutes/schools in psychoterapy offer the Diploma di specializzazione in psicoterapia, a third-cycle qualification that takes at least four years and requires a laurea magistrale/specialistica in either psychology or medicine and surgery, along with professional registration.<a href="#cite_note-QTI_other_quals-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Netherlands">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Education in the Netherlands</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982 when the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tweefasenstructuur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tweefasenstructuur (page does not exist)">Tweefasenstructuur</a> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweefasenstructuur" class="extiw" title="nl:Tweefasenstructuur">nl</a>]" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, <a href="/wiki/Wim_Deetman" title="Wim Deetman">Wim Deetman</a>. With this structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and to have them conform to similar timetables. An additional effect was that students would be forced to produce results within a preset time-frame or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two-phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna process">Bologna process</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Admission">Admission</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Admission">edit</a>]</div> In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, the student must complete a six-year pre-university secondary education called <a href="/wiki/Voorbereidend_wetenschappelijk_onderwijs" title="Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs">voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs</a> (VWO). There are other routes possible, but only if the educational level of the applicant is comparable to that at the end of the standard two levels is access to university education granted. For some studies, specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without having studied <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> will make it impossible to study <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. People 21 years old, or older, who do not have the required entrance diplomas, may opt for an entrance exam to be admitted to a higher-educational curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After 1 September 2002, they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum. For some disciplines<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> in the Netherlands, a governmentally determined <a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">limited access</a> is in place (although under political review for abolishment, as of February 2011).<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> This limits the number of applicants to a specific course of study, thus trying to control the number of future graduates. The disciplines most renowned for their <a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">numerus clausus</a> are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a <a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">numerus clausus</a> course of study and who can not. Almost all <a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of universities in the Netherlands">Dutch universities</a> are government supported, with only a few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in <a href="/wiki/Nyenrode_Business_Universiteit" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyenrode Business Universiteit">business</a> and all others in <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>). <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a> is the oldest, founded in 1575. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pre-Bologna_phases">Pre-Bologna phases</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Pre-Bologna phases">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Academic_degree" title="Special:EditPage/Academic degree">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Academic+degree%22">"Academic degree"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Academic+degree%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Academic+degree%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Academic+degree%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Academic+degree%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Academic+degree%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (July 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and had two phases: <ul><li>The "<a href="/wiki/Propaedeutics" title="Propaedeutics">propedeutische</a> fase" (1–2 years): After finishing this phase, a student can follow another two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a>), BA (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a>) or LLB (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws" title="Bachelor of Laws">Bachelor of Laws</a>).</li> <li>The "doctorale fase" (3–4 years): Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doctoraal_examen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doctoraal examen (page does not exist)">doctoraal examen</a> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctoraalexamen" class="extiw" title="nl:Doctoraalexamen">nl</a>]" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a> title. Successful completion, however, does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "<a href="/wiki/Doctorandus" title="Doctorandus">doctorandus</a>", ir. ("ingenieur" – engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" – master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a>), MA (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a>) and LLM (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">Master of Laws</a>), depending on the area of study.</li></ul> For medical students the "<a href="/wiki/Doctorandus" title="Doctorandus">doctorandus</a>" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon postgraduate research degree in medicine, of MD (<a href="/wiki/Medical_Doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Doctor">Medical Doctor</a>). Besides the title doctorandus, the graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title arts (physician). The doctorandus in medicine title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc degree according to the Bologna process and can be compared with the MBBS in the UK degree system and the North American MD, but not the <a href="/w/index.php?title=MD_(Res)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MD (Res) (page does not exist)">UK MD degree</a>, which is a research degree. One-on-one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However, officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use, in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who completed his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctoral (<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>-like) study is "drs." (e.g. drs. Jansen, arts) and not "dr." in medicine, which is often used incorrectly. However, like in the United Kingdom, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy. In the Netherlands, there is the informal title dokter for physicians, but not doctor (dr.), unless they also earn such adegree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the doctorandus degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years of additional study (internship) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgical training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. In recent years, the six-year (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three-year (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three-year (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already begun their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six-year study (nominal time). A doctorandus in law uses the title meester (master, abbreviated as mr. Jansen) instead of drs., and some courses of study, such as in technology and agriculture< grant the title ingenieur (engineer, noted as ir. Jansen) instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to an LL.M (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.) and if gotten before 1 September 2002, from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch honorifics before one's name. Since 1 September 2002, Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or LLM studies, thus integrating into the international scientific community, offering lectures, other classes, seminars or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names; MA graduates may use drs. before their name; LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such degrees from recognized Dutch universities. Not uncommonly, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a> in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree <a href="/wiki/MPhil" class="mw-redirect" title="MPhil">MPhil</a> was not awarded after 2009 as the <a href="/wiki/Universiteiten_van_Nederland" title="Universiteiten van Nederland">Universiteiten van Nederland</a> refused to recognize the MPhils awarded by <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir." or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a further, promotional course of study (informally called <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>) to eventually obtain a doctorate and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are ideally structured according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professor</a>. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the board of the <a href="/wiki/Faculty_(division)" title="Faculty (division)">faculty</a> with guest professors from other faculties or universities added. More and more common—and, in some disciplines, even mandatory—is that the student write, and have accepted for publication by peer-reviewed journals, original scientific work. The number of publications required is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation or thesis in book form. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bachelor/master_structure">Bachelor/master structure</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Bachelor/master structure">edit</a>]</div> All current Dutch academic programs are offered under the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelor's degree and another one or two years to earn a master's degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc and LLB) and three official master titles (MA, MSc and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Using_academic_titles">Using academic titles</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Using academic titles">edit</a>]</div> After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D following, their name, but not both simultaneously.<a href="#cite_note-rijksoverheid-84">[84]</a> There is no notation signifying the specific discipline in which the doctorate is obtained. As of 1 January 2021, the title 'PhD' and post-nominal degree 'PhD' can also be used, and these are also legally protected. Stacking of titles, as seen in countries such as Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber), is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctoral titles may use dr.mult. before their name, but this is seldom seen in practice.<a href="#cite_note-rijksoverheid-84">[84]</a> The honoris causa doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name.<a href="#cite_note-rijksoverheid-84">[84]</a> Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed, however, (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands#Hbo" title="Education in the Netherlands">HBO</a>, vocational, or professional engineering degree, together with an academic engineering degree.<a href="#cite_note-onzetaal.nl-85">[85]</a> What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead. A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles.<a href="#cite_note-onzetaal.nl-85">[85]</a> Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch title or use the shortcut provided by the law following one's name (since 1 September 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names).<a href="#cite_note-onzetaal.nl-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-burgervragen-86">[86]</a> "Doctors" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Universitair_docent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Universitair docent (page does not exist)">universitair docent</a> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/universitair_docent" class="extiw" title="nl:universitair docent">nl</a>]" (UD – <a href="/wiki/Assistant_professor" title="Assistant professor">assistant professor</a>). With time, experience and achievement, this can evolve to a position as "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Universitair_hoofddocent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Universitair hoofddocent (page does not exist)">universitair hoofddocent</a> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/universitair_hoofddocent" class="extiw" title="nl:universitair hoofddocent">nl</a>]" (UHD – <a href="/wiki/Associate_professor" title="Associate professor">associate professor</a>). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hoogleraar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hoogleraar (page does not exist)">hoogleraar</a> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/hoogleraar" class="extiw" title="nl:hoogleraar">nl</a>]" (<a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professor</a>), the head of the department. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professor</a>'s title, noted as prof. Jansen or professor Jansen, is connected to one's employment. This means that, should the <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professor</a> leave the <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a>, he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professor</a>. Retired professors are an exception and may continue to note the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job lose their professorial title and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation. Unlike some other European countries, such as Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in everyday life, and typically are not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles, however, are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and is subject to legal prosecution.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Holders of foreign degrees, therefore, need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated).<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (the Netherlands applies <a href="/wiki/Prosecutorial_discretion#The_Netherlands" title="Prosecutorial discretion">prosecutorial discretion</a>, so some known criminal uses are not prosecuted).<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Norway">Norway</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Norway">edit</a>]</div> Prior to 1980, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding educational programs within the Norwegian higher education system. Degrees had titles that included the gender based Latin term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. For example, Cand. Mag. (Candidatus Magisterii) required 4 to 5 years, Cand. Real.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> (Candidatus Realium) required 6 years of study and a scientific thesis in a select set of scientific disciplines (realia). Over the years these were replaced gradually with degrees that were more and more internationally comparable programs and corresponding titles. For example, the degree Cand. Scient. replaced Cand. Real. in the period 1985 to 2003. These degrees were all retired in 2003 in favour of an international system. The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the <a href="/wiki/Stortinget" class="mw-redirect" title="Stortinget">Storting</a>, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles master and bachelor (<a href="/wiki/Baccalaureus" class="mw-redirect" title="Baccalaureus">baccalaureus</a>). The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. The latter corresponds to the former sivilingeniør degree (not to be confused with a degree in <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a>, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title sivilingeniør, which is still in use for new graduates who can choose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written philosophiæ doctor (instead of the traditional doctor philosophiæ). The title <a href="/wiki/Dr._philos._(Norwegian_degree)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dr. philos. (Norwegian degree)">dr. philos.</a> is a substantially higher degree than the PhD[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poland">Poland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Poland">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, the system is similar to the German one. <ul><li>licencjat title – given by a <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a>; the equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> degree or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a> degree (depending on <a href="/wiki/Academic_major" title="Academic major">academic major</a>); granted after at least 3 years of study.</li> <li>inżynier (inż.) title – <a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree#Poland,_Czech_Republic_and_Slovakia" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a> given by a <a href="/wiki/Technical_university" class="mw-redirect" title="Technical university">technical university</a>; granted after at least about 3.5 years of study.</li> <li>magister (mgr) title – the equivalent of a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a> or <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a> degree, granted after 5–6 years of study or 2 years of additional study by holders of a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> with classification of <a href="/wiki/Honours_Degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Honours Degree">Honours Degree</a>.</li> <li>magister inżynier (mgr inż.) title – the equivalent of a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Engineering" title="Master of Engineering">Master of Engineering</a>, granted after about 2 years of additional study by holders of a degree of <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a>.</li> <li>doktor (dr) degree – the equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a>.</li> <li>doktor habilitowany (dr hab.) degree – Polish <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a> degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body.</li> <li>profesor (prof.) degree – the highest title, officially conferred by the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Poland" title="President of Poland">president of Poland</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia,_Ukraine_and_some_other_former_USSR_republics">Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Academic_degree" title="Special:EditPage/Academic degree">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2010) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Since 1992, Russian higher education has introduced a multilevel system, enabling higher education institutions to award and issue Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and some other <a href="/wiki/Former_USSR_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Former USSR republic">former USSR republics</a> educational degrees are awarded after finishing a college education. There are several levels of education that one must choose in the 2nd and 3rd year of college, usually in the 3rd year of study.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <ol><li>A <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> usually takes 4 years of college (minimum level to be recognized as having a higher education).</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Specialist_degree" title="Specialist degree">specialist degree</a> is awarded after 5 years of college (4 + 1).</li> <li>A Master's (Magister) degree is awarded after 6 years of college (4 + 2).<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></li></ol> But a Specialist degree can appear equivalent to Magister degree by reason of taking an equivalent amount of time. Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporate the bachelor's degrees in them, but only the high-level degree is given on the final diploma. Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final state exams and producing written work on practical application of studied skills or research thesis (usually 70–100 pages) and is roughly equivalent to a <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guidelines_for_the_recognition_of_Russian_qualifications_in_the-98">[98]</a> The first-level academic degree is called <a href="/wiki/Kandidat_nauk" class="mw-redirect" title="Kandidat nauk">Kandidat nauk</a> ("Candidate of Sciences"). This degree requires extensive research, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (not less than 5 publications in Ukraine or 3 publications in Russia), taking 3 or more exams (one or more in their speciality, one in a foreign language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and writing and defending an in-depth thesis (80–200 pages) called a "dissertation". Finally, there is a <a href="/wiki/Doktor_nauk" class="mw-redirect" title="Doktor nauk">Doktor Nauk</a> ("Doctor of Sciences") degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environments. This degree is granted for contributions in a certain field (formally – who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon or development of new theory or essential development of new direction, etc. There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in the US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a> in Germany, France, Austria and some other European countries. In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. According to Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries,<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of the second doctoral degree. In countries in which only one doctoral degree exists, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of this degree. According to <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">International Standard Classification of Education</a> (ISCED) UNESCO 2011,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> par.262, for purposes of international educational statistics: <ol><li>DPhil to Kandidat Nauk/Philosophy;</li> <li>D.Lit. to Kandidat Nauk in Literature;</li> <li>D.Sc. to Kandidat Nauk of Natural Science;</li> <li>LL.D. to Kandidat Nauk of Legal Science.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain">Spain</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Spain">edit</a>]</div> Spain's higher-education legal framework includes official and accredited education, as well as non-official education. 1.1 Official and accredited education In Spain, accreditation of official university study programmes is regulated by law and monitored by governmental agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and accreditation. Official professional study programmes lead to degree qualifications (Títulos) with full academic and professional rights. The degrees awarded in accordance with the latest higher-education system are: 1. Bachelor's Degree (Grado) – 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years. 2. Master's Degree (Master Universitario) – 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 1–2 years. 3. Doctoral degree PhD (Doctorado) – in 3–4 years. Accredited bachelor's degrees and master's degrees qualifications will always be described as Grado and Master Universitario. These qualifications comply with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA)<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> framework. Officially approved and accredited university study programmes by law must implement this framework in order to attain and retain accreditation in Spain. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_02.jpg/220px-Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_02.jpg/330px-Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_02.jpg/440px-Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1276" data-file-height="955" /></a><figcaption>Official Spanish University Education Legal Framework 02</figcaption></figure> 1.2 Non-official education Not all EHEA-compliant study programmes in Spain are officially approved or accredited by government agencies. Some universities offer proprietary study programmes as alternatives for a variety of reasons: serving the continuing education market for individual self-advancement and also providing higher education to individuals who have failed to acquire bachelor's degree qualifications. The main reason for offering these alternative studies, though, is the complex bureaucratic process required to receive the approval of specific titles, in particular when it refers to new studies or studies about matters that do not fit with the official studies. For historical reasons, the academic system has been very much under the control of the state, and private universities are still regarded with as a threat to the state system. These programmes fall within the category of "non officially approved and accredited" or estudios no oficiales, and they confer no academic or professional rights. This means that they do not entitle the bearer to claim to have any specific academic or professional qualifications, as far as the Spanish authorities are concerned. However, there may be private agreements to recognize the titles. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_01.jpg/220px-Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_01.jpg/330px-Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_01.jpg/440px-Spanish_Official_University_Education_Legal_Framework_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1269" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>Official Spanish University Education Legal Framework 01</figcaption></figure> Universities offering non-official study programmes are legally bound to clearly differentiate between officially-approved and non-officially-approved qualifications. Non-accredited master's degrees will be described as just Master, without the accompanying Universitario. Certain non-officially approved and accredited study programmes may acquire a positive reputation. However, neither professional associations, government agencies, judiciary authorities, nor universities – other than the study programme provider – are obliged to recognize non-official qualifications in any way. 2. Accreditation system University-taught study programme accreditation is granted through the <a href="/wiki/National_Agency_for_Quality_Assessment_and_Accreditation" title="National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation">National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation</a> (ANECA),<a href="#cite_note-aneca.es-102">[102]</a> a government-dependent quality assurance and accreditation provider for the Spanish higher education system that ensures that the data held in the Register of Universities, Centres and Qualifications (RUCT),<a href="#cite_note-educacion.gob.es-103">[103]</a> a national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct and up to date. All study programmes must be accredited by ANECA<a href="#cite_note-aneca.es-102">[102]</a> prior to their inclusion in the RUCT.<a href="#cite_note-educacion.gob.es-103">[103]</a> The RUCT<a href="#cite_note-educacion.gob.es-103">[103]</a> records all officially approved universities and their bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and PhDs and each and every one of the officially approved and accredited study programmes. Universities are assigned a specific number Code (Código) by the RUCT. The same study programme may acquire different codes as it progresses through various stages of official approval by local and central governments. Prospective students should check the RUCT Code awarded to the study programme of their interest at every stage of their enquiries concerning degrees in Spain.<a href="#cite_note-educacion.gob.es-103">[103]</a> ANECA makes recommendations regarding procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources available to students and continuity or loss of accreditation. The ANECA Registry<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> records all events in the life of an officially approved and accredited study programme or a university. The ANECA Registry Search Facility<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> may be the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all officially approved and accredited study programmes in Spain. It is also possible to track qualifications by using the search facility that several Autonomous Communities' own accreditation agencies offer. These agencies work within the ANECA framework and generally show more detailed information about the study programmes available in each territory (e.g., Catalonia, Madrid, etc.) 3. Qualifications framework for higher education The qualifications framework for higher education <a href="/wiki/QF-EHEA" title="QF-EHEA">MECES</a> is the reference framework adopted in Spain in order to structure degree levels. Not all universities offer degrees named exactly the same, even if they have similar academic and professional effects. Each university may present proposals for the study programme considered to meet professional and academic demand. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study programme being considered and the proposed qualification to be awarded. This report will be assessed by ANECA and sent for the Consejo de Universidades Españolas.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> If the Consejo agrees with ANECA's approval, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA registries. 4. Spanish qualifications and their professional effects. All bachelor's and master's degrees accredited by ANECA bestow full academic and professional rights in accordance with new and previous laws. Professional-practice law in Spain is currently under revision. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sweden">Sweden</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sweden">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bologna_process#Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna process">Bologna process § Sweden</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (May 2008)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Switzerland">Switzerland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Switzerland">edit</a>]</div> Before the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Process" title="Bologna Process">Bologna Process</a>, the academic degree of a <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">Licentiate</a> was reached after 4 or 5 years of study.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Depending on the official language of the university, it was called Lizentiat (German), Licence (French) or licenza (Italian) and, according to the Bologna reform, is today considered equivalent to a <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> A Licentiate with a predefined qualification gave access to the last stage of a further two or more years of studies (depending on the field) for a <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctoral degree</a>. Apart from this, most universities offered a <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_diploma" title="Postgraduate diploma">postgraduate diploma</a> requiring up to two years of study. French-speaking universities called them diplôme d'études approfondies <a href="/wiki/DEA_(former_French_degree)" class="mw-redirect" title="DEA (former French degree)">DEA or DESS</a>, the Italian-speaking university post laurea and German-speaking universities mostly Nachdiplomstudium (NDS). Today the federal legislation defines these postgraduate diplomas (60 ECTS credits) as <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Advanced_Studies" title="Master of Advanced Studies">Master of Advanced Studies</a> (MAS) or Executive Master of Business Administration (EMBA) degrees. Universities may also offer the possibility to gain a diploma in advanced studies (DAS, less than 60 ECTS credits).<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> These degrees do not normally give access to a doctoral programme. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland">England, Wales and Northern Ireland</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: England, Wales and Northern Ireland">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King%27s_College_London_Medical_School_Graduates.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/King%27s_College_London_Medical_School_Graduates.png/250px-King%27s_College_London_Medical_School_Graduates.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/King%27s_College_London_Medical_School_Graduates.png/375px-King%27s_College_London_Medical_School_Graduates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/King%27s_College_London_Medical_School_Graduates.png/500px-King%27s_College_London_Medical_School_Graduates.png 2x" data-file-width="1334" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>The newly conferred bachelor's degree holders after graduation at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College London</a>, one of the founding colleges of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a></figcaption></figure> An academic degree is protected under UK law. All valid UK degrees are awarded by universities or other degree-awarding bodies whose powers to do so are recognised by the UK government; hence they are known as "recognised bodies".<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The standard <a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_degree" title="Undergraduate degree">first degree</a> in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> conferred with honours. Usually this is a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or a Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree. Other variants exist: for example, Bachelor of Education or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws" title="Bachelor of Laws">Bachelor of Laws</a>. It usually takes three years to read for a bachelor's degree. The honours are usually categorised into four classes: <ul><li>First class honours (1st).</li> <li>Second class honours, divided into: <ul><li>Upper division or upper second (2:1).</li> <li>Lower division or lower second (2:2).</li></ul></li> <li>Third class honours (3rd).<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li></ul> Candidates who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without honours to the "ordinary" bachelor's degree if they have met the required standard for this lesser qualification (also referred to as a "pass degree"). Standard levels for each of these classes are 70%+ for a first, 60–69% for a 2:1, 50–59% for a 2:2, 40–49% for a 3rd and 30%+ for a pass degree, although this can vary by institution (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Open_University" title="Open University">Open University</a>).<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Foundation_degree" title="Foundation degree">foundation degree</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> is a qualification, lower than bachelor's level, awarded following a two-year programme of study that is usually vocational in nature. The foundation degree can be awarded by a university or college of higher education that has been granted foundation-degree-awarding powers by the UK government. This degree is comparable to an <a href="/wiki/Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">associate degree</a> in the United States. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge award honorary Master of Arts (MA) degrees to graduates of their bachelor's programmes, following a specified period of time. This is comparable to the practice of the ancient universities in Scotland awarding an MA for a first degree and arguably reflects the rigorous standards expected of their graduates. <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Master's degrees">Master's degrees</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> such as Master of Arts or Master of Science are typically awarded to students who have undertaken at least a year of full-time <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">postgraduate study</a>, which may require study and involve an element of research. Degrees such as Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Letters/Literature (MLitt) are likely to be awarded for postgraduate study involving original research. A student undertaking a master's would normally be expected to already hold a bachelor's degree in a relevant subject, hence the possibility of reaching the master's level in one year. Some universities award a master's as a first degree following an integrated programme of study (an 'integrated master's degree'). These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Engineering" title="Master of Engineering">Master of Engineering</a> for engineering, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Physics" title="Master of Physics">Master of Physics</a> for physics, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Mathematics" title="Master of Mathematics">Master of Mathematics</a> for mathematics and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering. Master's degrees are often graded as: <ul><li>Distinction</li> <li>Merit</li> <li>Pass</li></ul> The Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree is highly valued by those seeking to advance in business as managers and decision makers. Doctoral degrees or <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorates</a>,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> such as the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD or DPhil) or Doctor of Education (EdD or DEd), are awarded following a programme of original research that contributes new knowledge within the context of the student's discipline. Doctoral degrees usually take three years full-time. Therefore, in the UK it may only take seven years to progress from undergraduate to earning a doctorate – in some cases six, since having a master's is not always a precondition for embarking on a doctoral degree. This contrasts with nine years in the United States, reflecting differences in the educational systems. Some doctorates, such as the Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) qualification, confirm competence to practice in particular professions. There are also higher doctorates – Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Letters/Literature (DLitt) — that are typically awarded to experienced academics who have demonstrated a high level of achievement in their academic career; for example, they may have published widely on their subject or become professors in their fields. UK post-secondary qualifications are defined at different levels, with levels 1–3 denoting further education and levels 4–8 denoting higher education. Within this structure, a foundation degree is at level 5; a bachelor's degree at level 6; a master's degree at level 7; and a doctoral degree at level 8.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Full information about the expectations for different types of UK degrees is published by the <a href="/wiki/Quality_Assurance_Agency_for_Higher_Education" title="Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education">Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">graduate certificate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graduate_diploma" title="Graduate diploma">graduate diploma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_certificate" title="Postgraduate certificate">postgraduate certificate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_diploma" title="Postgraduate diploma">postgraduate diploma</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_degree_abbreviations" title="British degree abbreviations">British degree abbreviations</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Scotland">Scotland</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Scotland">edit</a>]</div> The standard <a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_degree" title="Undergraduate degree">first degree</a> for students studying arts or humanities in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> is either a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Scotland)" title="Master of Arts (Scotland)">Master of Arts</a> (the latter traditionally awarded by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Universities_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Universities of Scotland">Ancient Universities of Scotland</a> for a first degree in an arts/humanities subject). The standard undergraduate degree for natural and social science subjects is the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Students can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree. If a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.). Not all universities in Scotland adhere to this; in some, one studies in several subjects within a faculty for three years and can then specialise in two areas and attain a joint honours degree in fourth year. This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Scotland" title="Education in Scotland">Scottish secondary education</a>, where traditionally five <a href="/wiki/Higher_(Scottish)" title="Higher (Scottish)">Highers</a> are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Level_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Level (UK)">A-Levels</a>. The Higher is a one-year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Higher_(Scottish)" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Higher (Scottish)">Advanced Highers</a> add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts – students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities. Honours for MA or bachelor's degrees are classified into three classes: <ul><li>First class honours</li> <li>Second class honours, divided into: <ul><li>Division one (2:1) [Upper Second Class Honours]</li> <li>Division two (2:2) [Lower Second Class Honours]</li></ul></li> <li>Third class honours</li></ul> Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but who do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours, may be awarded a Special Degree (ordinary degree – bachelor's level SCQF Level 9). In most respects, the criteria for awarding qualifications at honours level and above are the same as in the rest of the UK (see above under England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Postgraduate qualifications are not designated Master of Arts, as in the rest of the UK, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Letters" title="Master of Letters">Master of Letters</a> (M.Litt.) or, in natural and social sciences, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a> (M.Sc.). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Philosophy" title="Master of Philosophy">Master of Philosophy</a> (M.Phil.) or <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Research" title="Master of Research">Master of Research</a> (M.Res.). The postgraduate teaching qualification is the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE). Postgraduate qualifications are classified into four classes: <ul><li>Distinction</li> <li>Credit</li> <li>Merit</li> <li>Pass</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> In Canada, education is the responsibility of the provinces and territories, rather than the federal government. However, all of Canada follows the three-level bachelor's-master's-doctorate system common to the Anglophone world, with a few variations. A common framework for degrees was agreed between the provinces and territories in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-Canada_Framework-119">[119]</a> Bachelor's degrees take normally three to four years, more commonly three years in Quebec (where they follow on from college courses rather than directly from secondary education). Outside Quebec, three-year bachelor's degrees are normally ordinary degrees, while four-year bachelor's degrees are <a href="/wiki/Honours_degree" title="Honours degree">honours degrees</a>; an honours degree is normally needed for further study at the master's level.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Master's degrees take one to three years (in Quebec they normally take one and a half to two years). Doctorates take a minimum of three years. Alone among Canadian provinces and territories, British Columbia offers two-year <a href="/wiki/Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">associate degrees</a>, allowing credit to be transferred into a four-year bachelor's program.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In Canada, <a href="/wiki/First_professional_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="First professional degree">first professional degrees</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Dental_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Dental Surgery">DDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">MD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Pharmacy" title="Doctor of Pharmacy">PharmD</a> and <a href="/wiki/LLB" class="mw-redirect" title="LLB">LLB</a> or <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">JD</a> are considered bachelor's level qualifications, despite their often being named as if they were doctorates.<a href="#cite_note-Canada_Framework-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Quebec">Quebec</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Quebec">edit</a>]</div> In the province of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, the majority of students must attend <a href="/wiki/College_education_in_Quebec" title="College education in Quebec">college</a> prior to entering university. Upon completion of a two-year pre-university program, such as in sciences or humanities, or a three-year technical program, such as nursing or computer science, college graduates obtain a <a href="/wiki/Quebec_College_Diploma" title="Quebec College Diploma">college diploma</a>, which is a prerequisite for access to university-level studies. Although these college programs are typical, they are not offered in every institution in the province. Moreover, while a few other pre-university programs with various concentrations exist, many other technical/career programs are available, depending on the college of choice. For example, <a href="/wiki/Dawson_College" title="Dawson College">Dawson College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> has nearly sixty different programs leading to a college diploma. Special programs, such as <a href="/wiki/Physical_rehabilitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical rehabilitation">physical rehabilitation therapy</a>, are offered in some colleges as well. These programs allow students to enter professional university programs, such as <a href="/wiki/Physiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiotherapy">physiotherapy</a> (which consists of an integrated <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Physiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy">Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Physical_Therapy" title="Master of Physical Therapy">Master of Physical Therapy</a>), without having to meet the usual grade and course prerequisites required from students holding a pre-university science diploma. A similar option is offered for college nursing graduates as they can pursue their studies in university to obtain a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Nursing">Bachelor of Nursing</a> in two years (rather than the usual three or four years, depending on whether the student has completed a college diploma in Quebec). Additionally, whereas aspiring medical students are usually required to complete an <a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_degree" title="Undergraduate degree">undergraduate degree</a> before applying to medical schools, Quebec college graduates have the option to enter: <ul><li>a "medical preparatory" year at <a href="/wiki/McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a> or <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al" title="Université de Montréal">Université de Montréal</a> and then pursue medical studies for the following four years;</li> <li>directly into the undergraduate medical education program at <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Laval" title="Université Laval">Université Laval</a> (4 to 5 years in duration) or <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Sherbrooke" title="Université de Sherbrooke">Université de Sherbrooke</a> (4 years in duration).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mexico">Mexico</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Mexico">edit</a>]</div> Education in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. The pre-university academic level is the bachillerato (also called preparatoria), similar to <a href="/wiki/High_school_(upper_secondary)" class="mw-redirect" title="High school (upper secondary)">high school</a>. Students typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a specific academic area (a carrera), such as economics, business administration, sciences, law, engineering or medicine, for 8–10 semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 4–5 years. They study for a técnico superior universitario (associate degree, only half of the licenciatura, with the possibility of finishing a full bachelor's degree later, mainly in fields such as engineering and computer sciences),<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> or a licenciatura (bachelor), then a maestría (master), then a doctorado (doctorate). They can also get the degree of "ingenieria" or "medico" as an engineer or MD, respectively. After receiving the licenciatura, students may take extra courses called diplomados (similar to a <a href="/wiki/Certification" title="Certification">certification</a> but issued by a university). These courses last 4–12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level, and are usually to demonstrate that students are staying up-to-date in their fields. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the maestría, equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a>. Study at the maestría level takes 1–3 years and mandates completion of a <a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">thesis</a>. Post-graduate students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying. Traditionally, students who have completed the maestria may continue on to the doctorado or the <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate</a>. Doctoral study typically lasts 3–4 years. In recent years this schemes has become flexible such that in some PhD programmes, students are accepted before, or not completing, the course of study for a master's. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> In the United States, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor's, master's, and doctorate has been in place but has evolved into a slightly different pattern from the European equivalent. The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Education">U.S. Department of Education</a> now classifies degrees in six categories: <a href="/wiki/Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">associate degrees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degrees</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_professional_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="First professional degree">first professional degrees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Master's degrees">master's degrees</a>, intermediate graduate qualifications and <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">research doctorates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The standard academic progression remains bachelor's—master's—(research) doctorate. Most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree, most often <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> (B.A.) or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a> (B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a> (M.A.) or <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a> (M.S.); either of these programs might be as long as three years in length) and a further two to five years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate, for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time limit on the accumulation of academic degrees. By far the most common research doctorate is the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (Ph.D.), comprising 98.1% of research doctorates in 2014. The <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Education" title="Doctor of Education">Doctor of Education</a> (Ed.D.) made up 1.1% (not including Ed.D.s classified as professional degrees rather than research doctorates) and all other research doctorates were less than 1% in total.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Some schools, mostly <a href="/wiki/Junior_college" title="Junior college">junior colleges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Community_college" title="Community college">community colleges</a> and some four-year schools, offer an <a href="/wiki/Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">associate degree</a> that takes two full years of study. These may be in professional or academic fields, and the most common awards are the Associate of Arts (A.A.) and Associate of Science (A.S.) degrees. <a href="/wiki/Articulation_(education)" title="Articulation (education)">Articulation</a> agreements may allow credit earned on an associate degree to be counted toward the completion of a bachelor's degree.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The "<a href="/wiki/First_professional_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="First professional degree">first professional degree</a>" is a graduate-level degree program designed to prepare graduates for professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship and research. First professional degrees require a minimum of two years of college-level education prior to entering the program and a minimum of six years of total college-level education (including that undertaken prior to entry) to complete the program.<a href="#cite_note-US_Department_of_Education-134">[134]</a> Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission and many require seven or eight years of total study. Many first professional degrees, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">M.D.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">J.D.</a> or <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">D.O.</a> are named as doctorates but should not be confused with research doctorates such as the Ph.D. (or, in law, the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Juridical_Science" title="Doctor of Juridical Science">S.J.D.</a>).<a href="#cite_note-US_Department_of_Education-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> First professional degrees should also not be confused with professional master's degrees such as the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Architecture" title="Master of Architecture">M.Arch.</a> and <a href="/wiki/M.B.A." class="mw-redirect" title="M.B.A.">M.B.A.</a>, which are classified as master's degrees,<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> or with intermediate graduate qualifications that also bear the title of doctor, such as <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Ministry" title="Doctor of Ministry">D.Min.</a> or <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Psychology" title="Doctor of Psychology">D.Psy.</a><a href="#cite_note-Intermediate_Graduate_Qualifications-137">[137]</a> Intermediate graduate qualifications lie between the master's level and doctorate. They include awards such as the <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_Advanced_Study" title="Certificate of Advanced Study">Certificate of Advanced Study</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graduate_Diploma" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate Diploma">Graduate Diplomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Professional_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional Engineer">Professional Engineer</a> status, and Professional Diplomas, as well as <a href="/wiki/Specialist_degree" title="Specialist degree">specialist degrees</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Education_Specialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Education Specialist">Education Specialist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Ministry" title="Doctor of Ministry">Doctor of Ministry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Psychology" title="Doctor of Psychology">Doctor of Psychology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_in_Sacred_Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Licentiate in Sacred Theology">Licentiate in Sacred Theology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Intermediate_Graduate_Qualifications-137">[137]</a> In 21 US jurisdictions, religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt., etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Current_levels_of_attainment_of_degrees">Current levels of attainment of degrees</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Current levels of attainment of degrees">edit</a>]</div> Traditionally, more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A milestone was reached in the United States, according to the 2010 census, as women surpassed men in attaining master's degrees, for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> The U.S. census reports that 10.5 million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that women surpassed men in earning bachelor's degrees was 1996.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Perceptions_of_the_value_of_a_degree_in_the_US">Perceptions of the value of a degree in the US</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Perceptions of the value of a degree in the US">edit</a>]</div> Students, the media, and the general public have shown much concern over the value of getting a higher degree in the US ever since the Great Recession of 2007. A 2015 survey of 2,000 adults (900 of which were graduates), implemented by the education technology company Greenwood Hall, reported that more than half of the graduates surveyed believe those getting their degree now will be receiving a lower return on their investment than their counterparts 10–15 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-:0-142">[142]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] Media coverage of the rising costs of higher education and increased student debt have also affected the public's perceptions of whether higher degrees are still worthwhile. Statistics citing that college graduates make around $1 million more in their lifetimes than those who did not attend college and live longer, healthier lives work in favor of those who argue the continued value of higher degrees.<a href="#cite_note-:0-142">[142]</a> Studies like the 2011 Learning Gains study by Arum and Roksa, on the other hand, reported that only 55% of students had any learning gains during their first two years of college, which favors the argument that investing in higher education may not still be worth it.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Oceania">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Qualifications_Framework" title="Australian Qualifications Framework">Australian Qualifications Framework</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Australian_Qualifications_Framework" title="Australian Qualifications Framework">Australian Qualifications Framework</a> (AQF) covers 10 levels, of which levels 6–10 correspond to academic degrees. These are: the <a href="/wiki/Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">associate degree</a> (level 6), which normally takes 2 years; the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor degree">bachelor degree</a> (level 7), which normally takes 3 years; the <a href="/wiki/Honours_degree" title="Honours degree">bachelor honours degree</a> (level 8), which normally takes 1 year after the bachelor's degree and is mostly taken as an optional extension year, depending on the discipline; the master degree (level 9), which normally takes 1–2 years for "research" or "coursework" degrees and 3–4 years for an "extended" degree and follows on from either a bachelor or honours degree; and the <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctoral degree</a> (level 10), which normally takes 3–4 years following on from a master's degree or a Class I or IIa honours qualification. Also included within the higher education system are: diplomas at level 5 (first year of a degree course); advanced diplomas, at level 6 (associate degree level); and <a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">graduate certificates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Graduate_diploma" title="Graduate diploma">graduate diplomas</a>, both of which are at level 8 (honours degree level).<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-AQF-145">[145]</a> In Australia, most degrees are issued ungraded, with bachelor's degrees with honours being the exception. Categories of honours degrees are: <ul><li>First Class Honours (H1 or I; overall mark of 80% and above);</li> <li>Second Class Honours – A Division (H2A or IIA; overall mark of 74% to 79%);</li> <li>Second Class Honours – B Division (H2B or IIB; overall mark of 70% to 74%);</li> <li>Third Class Honours (H3 or III; overall mark of 65% to 69%).</li></ul> Lower marks do not qualify for honours, but yield a bachelor's degree at: <ul><li>Pass (P: overall mark of 50% to 64%);</li> <li>Fail (N or Failed: overall mark of 49% and below).<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li></ul> Doctorates in Australia may be research doctorates (normally titled <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhDs</a>), professional doctorates (normally titled to refer to the field of practice, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Engineering" title="Doctor of Engineering">Doctor of Engineering</a>) or higher doctorates (also normally titled to refer to the field of practice). Extended master's degrees are also allowed to have the word 'doctor' in their title if they are in certain fields, but they are not doctoral degrees.<a href="#cite_note-AQF-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: New Zealand">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education_in_New_Zealand" title="Tertiary education in New Zealand">Tertiary education in New Zealand</a></div> Like Australia, New Zealand has a 10-level qualifications framework (the New Zealand Qualifications Framework – NZQF) and a referencing exercise has found a one-to-one correspondence between the levels of the two frameworks.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> However, the names given to qualifications at different levels are not the same and New Zealand does not have associate degrees, thus only levels 7–10 correspond to academic degrees. These are the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> (level 7), <a href="/wiki/Honours_degree" title="Honours degree">bachelor honours degree</a> (level 8), <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> (level 9) and the <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctoral degree</a> (level 10). In addition to these, the NZQF has certificates across levels 1–6, diplomas at levels 5 and 6, <a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">graduate certificates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Graduate_diploma" title="Graduate diploma">graduate diplomas</a> at level 7 (bachelor's), and <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_certificate" title="Postgraduate certificate">postgraduate certificates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_diploma" title="Postgraduate diploma">postgraduate diplomas</a> at level 8 (honours).<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Another referencing exercise, comparing the NZQF to the 10-level Irish National Framework for Qualifications, found that degrees were comparable but that further work was needed to improve compatibility at the sub-degree levels (1–6). Non-degree qualifications at levels 7–9 were not included in the study.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> In New Zealand, master's degrees may be awarded with classified honours (1st, 2:1, 2:2, 3rd) or with distinction or merit.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Argentina">Argentina</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Argentina">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Argentina" title="Education in Argentina">Education in Argentina</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brazil">Brazil</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Brazil">edit</a>]</div> Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities graduate either with a bachelor's degree, a licentiate degree or a technologist degree. Bachelor degrees in Brazil normally take four or five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course, which requires six years. Licentiate degrees normally take four-years, and are for students who want to qualify as <a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">school</a> teachers. Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities and natural sciences. The technologist degree is available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years. These degrees are for entry into industry. Admission as an undergraduate student to most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as the <a href="/wiki/Vestibular" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibular">Vestibular</a>. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as transferência interna), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major. Individuals who hold either a bachelor's degree, licentiate or technologist are eligible for admission into <a href="/wiki/Graduate_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate School">graduate</a> courses leading to advanced <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master</a>'s or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation and possibly oral interviews. In most cases, however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan, and one faculty member must agree to serve as supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program. The exceptions are the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> post-graduate programs, which accept students with very broad or vague research prospects that sometimes the prospect is given in promptu during the interview, preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies. There are two types of post-graduate programs: lato sensu (specialization and MBAs) and stricto sensu (professional master's, master's, and doctorate). Specializations or MBAs are courses that include taking a minimum number of graduate classes (minimum of 360 hours) but with no need to do research nor defend a thesis, only to present final work showing knowledge acquired. It is a professional level where theory and practice are focused broadly. Professional master's or master's degrees usually take one to two years of full-time study. Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight) and submitting a research thesis, which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one member from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis must be in adding some value to knowledge, but not necessarily in being original. Doctoral degrees normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's thesis, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute. Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_(state)" title="São Paulo (state)">São Paulo</a>, still award the title of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Livre-Docente&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Livre-Docente (page does not exist)">Livre-Docente</a> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livre-doc%C3%AAncia" class="extiw" title="pt:Livre-docência">pt</a>] (free <a href="/wiki/Docent" title="Docent">docent</a>), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a>, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docência examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors. See also <a href="/wiki/Universities_and_Higher_Education_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities and Higher Education in Brazil">Universities and Higher Education in Brazil</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colombia">Colombia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Colombia">edit</a>]</div> In Colombia, the system of academic degrees is based in the British model, similar to the U.S. model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The first one is called a profesional (professional career), which is similar to a bachelor's degree requiring from four to 6 years of study according to the chosen program. The other option is called a técnico (technician); this degree consists of two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a tecnólogo (equivalent to associate degree) and consists of three years of study. After this, students, now called profesional (professionals), técnicos (technicians) or tecnólogos (associates), can opt for higher degrees. Formal education after the bachelor's degree leads to the master's degree with the title of maestro and doctorate degrees, known as doctorado (doctorate). The master's degree normally takes two years. Students also can take a specialization course, especialización, equivalent to a graduate certificate degree, after their bachelor's degree. These programs, like in the U.S., are very popular, because it requires only one to two years of study. In Colombia, similar to the U.S. system, the students may not go directly to the doctorado without having the "master" degree first. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chile">Chile</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Chile">edit</a>]</div> After completing enseñanza media (high school), students receive a Licenciatura de Enseñanza Media (high school diploma), which is a requirement for higher education. In Chile, there is a distinction between academic degrees and professional titles: <ul><li>Grado académico is the denomination given to an academic degree granted by a higher education institution recognized by the Chilean Mineduc (Ministry of Education).</li> <li>Titulo profesional is the denomination given to a professional title. Some professional titles are required for occupations such as physicians, attorneys and as civil/commercial engineers. A professional title may or may not require a grado académico, additional examination or work experience. For example, the abogado (attorney) professional title is granted by the Chilean Supreme Court and requires an examination, academic degree and 6 months of pro-bono work experience.</li></ul> Among grado académico degrees, there are the following levels: <ul><li>Bachiller, undergraduate degree obtained by completing a 2-year bachillerato.</li> <li>Licenciado, undergraduate degree obtained as a 4+ year licenciatura. Equivalent to a bachelor's degree.</li> <li>Magister, graduate degree, requiring a licenciado degree or equivalent. Equivalent to a master's degree.</li> <li>Doctorado, a doctoral degree, often requiring a magister degree or equivalent.</li></ul> Higher-education programs that provide a professional title but not an academic degree are referred to as carreras técnicas, which are similar in duration and scope to associate degree programs. These are often granted by educational institutions of the type instituto profesional (IP) or centro de formación técnica (CFT). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Venezuela">Venezuela</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Venezuela">edit</a>]</div> Academic degrees in Venezuela start with the Certificado de Educación Básica (Certificate of Basic Education), awarded upon completing the 9th grade. The next degree is earned upon completing the 11th grade and confers the title of Bachiller en Ciencias (High School Graduate of Science), Bachiller en Humanidades (High School Graduate of Humanities) or Técnico en Ciencias (Science Technician). The reason for this diversity is because some schools provide vocational education as part of their high school curriculum (thereby allowing them to hand out "technician" titles), while elsewhere the student is required to decide whether to study science or the humanities for the last two years of secondary school. Titles at the higher-education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical schools award the student with the title of Técnico Superior Universitario (university higher technician, to distinguish from science technician). Universities award the student with the title of ingeniero (engineer) or with the title licenciado (licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The ingeniero degree requires more physics than the licenciado degree, but both take five years. Some higher-education institutions may award diplomados (diploma), but the time necessary to obtain one varies. Medical doctors are awarded the title "Médico Cirujano" after completing a 6-year course of study. Postgraduate education in Venezuela follows the conventions of the United States (being named "master's" and "doctorate" after the programs there). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pontifical_universities">Pontifical universities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Pontifical universities">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_university" title="Pontifical university">Pontifical universities</a> around the world—such as the Pontifical University, St Patrick's College, Maynooth, in Ireland; the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Santo_Tomas" title="University of Santo Tomas">Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a>;<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_University_of_America" title="Catholic University of America">Catholic University of America</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_University_of_Saint_Thomas_Aquinas" title="Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas">Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas</a>, Angelicum, in Rome; the <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_catholique_de_Louvain" class="mw-redirect" title="Université catholique de Louvain">University of Louvain</a> (UCLouvain) in Belgium, and the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Catholic_University_of_Peru" title="Pontifical Catholic University of Peru">Pontifical Catholic University of Peru</a> depend for their status as pontifical universities, and for the nature of their academic degrees, on the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a>, through the <a href="/wiki/Congregation_for_Catholic_Education" title="Congregation for Catholic Education">Congregation for Catholic Education</a>. The nature of academic degrees from ecclesiastical institutions of education is outlined in the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_constitution" title="Apostolic constitution">apostolic constitution</a> Sapientia Christiana.<a href="#cite_note-vatican.va-152">[152]</a> In distinction to secular or Catholic universities, which are academic institutions for the study and teaching of a broad range of disciplines, ecclesiastical or <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_university" title="Pontifical university">pontifical universities</a> "are usually composed of three principal ecclesiastical faculties: theology, philosophy, and canon law, as well as at least one other faculty. A pontifical university specifically addresses Christian revelation and disciplines correlative to the evangelical mission of the Church as set out in Sapientia christiana."<a href="#cite_note-vatican.va-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-avepro.va-153">[153]</a> The core of degrees granted by pontifical universities consists of three levels: the first is the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">baccalaureate</a>; the second is the <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">licentiate</a>; the third is the <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate</a>. From this core pontifical universities confer specific degrees, including: Theology <ul><li>Baccalaureate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureatus (S.T.B.)</li> <li>Licentiate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Licentiatus (S.T.L.)</li> <li>Doctorate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Doctoratus (S.T.D.)</li></ul> Philosophy <ul><li>Baccalaureate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Baccalaureatus (Ph.B.)</li> <li>Licentiate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Licentiatus (Ph.L.)</li> <li>Doctorate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Doctoratus (Ph.D.)</li></ul> Canon Law <ul><li>Baccalaureate in Canon Law, Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus (J.C.B.)</li> <li>Licentiate in Canon Law, Juris Canonici Licentiatus (J.C.L.)</li> <li>Doctorate in Canon Law, Juris Canonici Doctoratus (J.C.D.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Academic_degree" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Academic degree">Academic degree</a>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Awards_in_Spain" title="Academic Awards in Spain">Academic Awards in Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Inflation">Academic Inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_stole" title="Academic stole">Academic stole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_eundem_degree" title="Ad eundem degree">Ad eundem degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrees_of_the_University_of_Oxford" title="Degrees of the University of Oxford">Degrees of the University of Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrees_offered_by_unaccredited_institutions_of_higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Degrees offered by unaccredited institutions of higher education">Degrees offered by unaccredited institutions of higher education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_devaluation" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational devaluation">Educational devaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_degree" title="External degree">External degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">Higher education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">Honorary degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambeth_degree" title="Lambeth degree">Lambeth degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisbon_Recognition_Convention" title="Lisbon Recognition Convention">Lisbon Recognition Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fields_of_doctoral_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of fields of doctoral studies">List of fields of doctoral studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifical_university" title="Pontifical university">Pontifical university</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validation_of_foreign_studies_and_degrees" title="Validation of foreign studies and degrees">Validation of foreign studies and degrees</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Doctor,_doctoratus-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Doctor,_doctoratus_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Doctor,_doctoratus_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVerger1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Verger, J. (1998). "Doctor, doctoratus". <a href="/wiki/Lexikon_des_Mittelalters" title="Lexikon des Mittelalters">Lexikon des Mittelalters</a> [Lexicon of the Middle Ages] (in German). Vol. 3. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Doctor%2C+doctoratus&rft.btitle=Lexikon+des+Mittelalters&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=J.B.+Metzler&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Verger&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Licentia-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Licentia_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Licentia_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lexikon_des_Mittelalters:_Licentia_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerger1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Verger, J. (1999). "Licentia". <a href="/wiki/Lexikon_des_Mittelalters" title="Lexikon des Mittelalters">Lexikon des Mittelalters</a> [Lexicon of the Middle Ages] (in German). Vol. 5. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Licentia&rft.btitle=Lexikon+des+Mittelalters&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=J.B.+Metzler&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Verger&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.k12academics.com/higher-education/academic-degree#.U75_Eo1_v20">"Academic Degree"</a>. K12academics.com. 6 February 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=K12academics.com&rft.atitle=Academic+Degree&rft.date=2014-02-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.k12academics.com%2Fhigher-education%2Facademic-degree%23.U75_Eo1_v20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academicapparel.com/caps/History-Academic-Degrees.html">"Origin of the Bachelor's, Master's and Doctorate"</a>. Academicapparel.com. Retrieved 18 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Academicapparel.com&rft.atitle=Origin+of+the+Bachelor%27s%2C+Master%27s+and+Doctorate&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academicapparel.com%2Fcaps%2FHistory-Academic-Degrees.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Makdisi-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Makdisi_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakdisi1989" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_Makdisi" title="George Makdisi">Makdisi, George</a> (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F604423">10.2307/604423</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/604423">604423</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Scholasticism+and+Humanism+in+Classical+Islam+and+the+Christian+West&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-182+175-77&rft.date=1989-04%2F1989-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F604423&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F604423%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Makdisi&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alatas-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alatas_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alatas_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Attas2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Syed_Farid_al-Attas" title="Syed Farid al-Attas">Al-Attas, Syed Farid</a> (1 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/29439">"From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Current_Sociology" title="Current Sociology">Current Sociology</a>. 54 (1): 112–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011392106058837">10.1177/0011392106058837</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3921">0011-3921</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144509355">144509355</a>. <q>In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Sociology&rft.atitle=From+J%C4%81mi%27+ah+to+University%3A+Multiculturalism+and+Christian%E2%80%93Muslim+Dialogue&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=112-132&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144509355%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0011-3921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0011392106058837&rft.aulast=Al-Attas&rft.aufirst=Syed+Farid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F29439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stewart-7"><a href="#cite_ref-stewart_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevin_J._Stewart2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Devin_J._Stewart" title="Devin J. Stewart">Devin J. Stewart</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201">"Degrees, or Ijazah"</a>. In Josef W. Meri (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Islamic_Civilization:_An_Encyclopedia" title="Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia">Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 201–203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135455965" title="Special:BookSources/9781135455965"><bdi>9781135455965</bdi></a>. <q>The license to teach law and issue legal opinions [...] is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely [...] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Degrees%2C+or+Ijazah&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=201-203&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781135455965&rft.au=Devin+J.+Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc1ZsBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuff2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Toby_Huff" title="Toby Huff">Huff, Toby E.</a> (2007). The rise of early modern science : Islam, China, and the West (2. ed., repr. ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge University Press. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521529945" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521529945"><bdi>978-0521529945</bdi></a>. <q>It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic madrasas.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+of+early+modern+science+%3A+Islam%2C+China%2C+and+the+West&rft.place=Cambridge+%5Bu.a.%5D&rft.pages=155&rft.edition=2.+ed.%2C+repr.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0521529945&rft.aulast=Huff&rft.aufirst=Toby+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerger1999" class="citation cs2">Verger, J. (1999), "Doctor, doctoratus", <a href="/wiki/Lexikon_des_Mittelalters" title="Lexikon des Mittelalters">Lexikon des Mittelalters</a>, vol. 3, Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, cols 1155–1156</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Doctor%2C+doctoratus&rft.btitle=Lexikon+des+Mittelalters&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=cols+1155-1156&rft.pub=J.B.+Metzler&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Verger&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_the_University_in_Europe" title="A History of the University in Europe">A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages</a>, Cambridge University Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36105-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36105-2">0-521-36105-2</a>, pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world." </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. 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Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). 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Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). 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Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). 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Media.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). 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Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hubmiur.pubblica.istruzione.it/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/488f990c-b3a7-43cb-8fac-9f1bc8b37ccd/TitoliItaliainglese.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 October 2016. 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Wetten.overheid.nl. 21 October 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100718053759/http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/DerdeBoek/TitelII/Artikel435/geldigheidsdatum_21-10-2009">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2010. 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Ozstudies.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ozstudies.com&rft.atitle=Australian+Grading+System+Explained%3A+A+Complete+Guide+%26%23124%3B+Study+in+Australia+%E2%80%A2+OzStudies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fozstudies.com%2Fblog%2Fstudy-australia%2Fcomplete-guide-to-the-australian-grading-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/our-role-in-international-education/country-specific-recognition-arrangements/australia/">"Australia"</a>. New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Retrieved 4 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Australia&rft.pub=New+Zealand+Qualifications+Authority&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzqa.govt.nz%2Fabout-us%2Four-role%2Four-role-in-international-education%2Fcountry-specific-recognition-arrangements%2Faustralia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/studying-in-new-zealand/understand-nz-quals/">"Understanding New Zealand qualifications"</a>. New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Retrieved 4 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+New+Zealand+qualifications&rft.pub=New+Zealand+Qualifications+Authority&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzqa.govt.nz%2Fstudying-in-new-zealand%2Funderstand-nz-quals%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/our-role-in-international-education/country-specific-recognition-arrangements/ireland/">"Ireland"</a>. New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Retrieved 5 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ireland&rft.pub=New+Zealand+Qualifications+Authority&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzqa.govt.nz%2Fabout-us%2Four-role%2Four-role-in-international-education%2Fcountry-specific-recognition-arrangements%2Fireland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aut.ac.nz/being-a-student/current-postgraduates/academic-information/award-of-honours-and-distinction">"Award of honours and distinction"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Auckland_University_of_Technology" title="Auckland University of Technology">Auckland University of Technology</a>. Retrieved 13 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Award+of+honours+and+distinction&rft.pub=Auckland+University+of+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aut.ac.nz%2Fbeing-a-student%2Fcurrent-postgraduates%2Facademic-information%2Faward-of-honours-and-distinction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> The direct competence of the Holy See applies only to the Ecclesiastical Faculties of Theology, Philosophy and Canon Law. The other sciences and arts degrees are under the competence of the Department of Education of the Philippine Republic. </li> <li id="cite_note-vatican.va-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vatican.va_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vatican.va_152-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_15041979_sapientia-christiana_en.html">"Sapientia Christiana (April 15, 1979) – John Paul II"</a>. Vatican.va. Retrieved 18 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vatican.va&rft.atitle=Sapientia+Christiana+%28April+15%2C+1979%29+%E2%80%93+John+Paul+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vatican.va%2Fholy_father%2Fjohn_paul_ii%2Fapost_constitutions%2Fdocuments%2Fhf_jp-ii_apc_15041979_sapientia-christiana_en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcademic+degree" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-avepro.va-153"><a href="#cite_ref-avepro.va_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avepro.va/">"AVEPRO"</a>. avepro.va. 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href="/wiki/Foundation_degree" title="Foundation degree">Foundation degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_National_Diploma" title="Higher National Diploma">Higher National Diploma</a> / <a href="/wiki/Diploma_of_Higher_Education" title="Diploma of Higher Education">Diploma of Higher Education</a> / <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_Higher_Education" title="Certificate of Higher Education">Certificate of Higher Education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 6</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">Bachelor's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honours_degree" title="Honours degree">Honours degree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 7</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_diploma" title="Postgraduate diploma">Postgraduate diploma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_certificate" title="Postgraduate certificate">certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplom" title="Diplom">Diplom degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 8</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candidate_of_Sciences" title="Candidate of Sciences">Candidate of Sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Postdoctoral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higher_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher doctorate">Higher doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Sciences" title="Doctor of Sciences">Doctor of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docent#Northern_Europe" title="Docent">Docent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_tenure" title="Academic tenure">Tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellow" title="Fellow">Fellow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">No dominant classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_certificate" title="Academic certificate">Academic certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artist_diploma" title="Artist diploma">Artist diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_degree" title="External degree">External degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurea" title="Laurea">Laurea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">Licentiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_degree" title="Magister degree">Magister degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microdegree" title="Microdegree">Microdegree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degree" title="Professional degree">Professional degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_diploma" title="Graduate diploma">Graduate diploma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_diploma" title="Higher diploma">Higher diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialist_degree" title="Specialist degree">Specialist degree</a>/<a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia#Traditional_model" title="Education in Russia">diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_degree" title="Terminal degree">Terminal degree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unearned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">Honorary degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_eundem_degree" title="Ad eundem degree">Ad eundem degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford,_Cambridge,_and_Dublin)" title="Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)">Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Named_academic_degrees" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Named_academic_degrees" title="Template:Named academic degrees"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Named_academic_degrees" title="Template talk:Named academic degrees"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Named_academic_degrees" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Named academic degrees"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Named_academic_degrees" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Named <a class="mw-selflink selflink">academic degrees</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Associate%27s_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Associate's degree">Associate's degrees</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Associate_of_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Associate of Arts">AA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Associate_in_Applied_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Associate in Applied Science">AAS</a>, ABA, ABS, AOS, AS, <a href="/wiki/AMusA" class="mw-redirect" title="AMusA">AMusA</a> and <a href="/wiki/LMusA" class="mw-redirect" title="LMusA">LMusA</a> (Australia), <a href="/wiki/Associate_of_Science_in_Nursing" title="Associate of Science in Nursing">ASN</a>, Associate in Specialized Technology (AST)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foundation_degree" title="Foundation degree">Foundation degrees</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=FdA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FdA (page does not exist)">FdA</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=FdEd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FdEd (page does not exist)">FdEd</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=FdEng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FdEng (page does not exist)">FdEng</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=FdMus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FdMus (page does not exist)">FdMus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=FdBus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FdBus (page does not exist)">FdBus</a>, <a href="/wiki/FdSc" class="mw-redirect" title="FdSc">FdSc</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=FdTech&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FdTech (page does not exist)">FdTech</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">Bachelor's degrees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">AB</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Accountancy" title="Bachelor of Accountancy">BAcc</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Accountancy" title="Bachelor of Accountancy">BAcy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bachelor_of_Administration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bachelor of Administration (page does not exist)">BAdm</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bachelor_of_Agricultural_Economics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bachelor of Agricultural Economics (page does not exist)">BAgrEc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Architecture" title="Bachelor of Architecture">BArch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Business_Administration" title="Bachelor of Business Administration">BBA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Business" title="Bachelor of Business">BBus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Commerce" title="Bachelor of Commerce">BCom</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Commerce" title="Bachelor of Commerce">BComm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Computer_Science" title="Bachelor of Computer Science">BCS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Civil_Law" title="Bachelor of Civil Law">BCL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Sacred_Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Sacred Theology">STB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Divinity" title="Bachelor of Divinity">BD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Dentistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Dentistry">BDent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Dental_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Dental Surgery">BDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Education" title="Bachelor of Education">B.Ed.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Economics" title="Bachelor of Economics">BEc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">BEng</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">BE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Biomedical_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering">BSBME</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Fine_Arts" title="Bachelor of Fine Arts">BFA</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bachelor_of_Health_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bachelor of Health Sciences (page does not exist)">BHSc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_General_Studies" title="Bachelor of General Studies">BGS</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bachelor_of_Home_Economics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bachelor of Home Economics (page does not exist)">BHE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Human_Kinetics" title="Bachelor of Human Kinetics">BHK</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Industrial_Design" title="Bachelor of Industrial Design">BID</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Journalism" title="Bachelor of Journalism">BJ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Theology" title="Bachelor of Theology">BTh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Liberal_Studies" title="Bachelor of Liberal Studies">BLibStud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Library_and_Information_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Library and Information Science">BLIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Mathematics" title="Bachelor of Mathematics">BMath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medical Science">BMedSc</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medical Science">BMedSci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Music" title="Bachelor of Music">BMus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Nursing" title="Bachelor of Science in Nursing">BSN</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Physical_Education" title="Bachelor of Physical Education">BPE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Pharmacy" title="Bachelor of Pharmacy">BPharm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BSc</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">SB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Science in Agriculture">BSc(Agr)</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Science in Agriculture">BSA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Social_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Social Sciences">BSocSci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Social_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Social Work">BSW</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Technology" title="Bachelor of Technology">BTech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lady_Literate_in_Arts" title="Lady Literate in Arts">LLA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws" title="Bachelor of Laws">LLB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine_and_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery">MB ChB</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine_and_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery">MB BS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine_and_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery">BM BS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine_and_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery">BMed</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine_and_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery">MB BChir</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine_and_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery">MB BCh BAO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford,_Cambridge_and_Dublin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin)">MA (Cantab.)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford,_Cambridge_and_Dublin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin)">MA (Dubl.)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Scotland)" title="Master of Arts (Scotland)">MA (Hons)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford,_Cambridge_and_Dublin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin)">MA (Oxon.)</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degrees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Architecture" title="Master of Architecture">MArch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_in_Teaching" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Arts in Teaching">MAT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_in_Liberal_Studies" title="Master of Arts in Liberal Studies">MALS or MLS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">MS or MSc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">MSt</a>, <a href="/wiki/DEA_(former_French_degree)" class="mw-redirect" title="DEA (former French degree)">DEA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Accountancy" title="Master of Accountancy">MAcc</a> or <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Accountancy" title="Master of Accountancy">MPAcc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_in_Law_and_Diplomacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy">MALD</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Arts_in_Politics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Arts in Politics (page does not exist)">MApol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Philosophy" title="Master of Philosophy">MPhil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Research" title="Master of Research">MRes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Fine_Arts" title="Master of Fine Arts">MFA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Technology">MTech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Business_Administration" title="Master of Business Administration">MBA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Business_Informatics" title="Master of Business Informatics">MBI</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Business_and_Technology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Business and Technology (page does not exist)">MBT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Business" title="Master of Business">MBus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Membership_of_City_and_Guilds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Membership of City and Guilds (page does not exist)">MCGI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Commerce" title="Master of Commerce">MCom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Design" title="Master of Design">MDes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Theology" title="Master of Theology">MTh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Theological_Studies" title="Master of Theological Studies">MTS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Divinity" title="Master of Divinity">MDiv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Education" title="Master of Education">MEd</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Music_Therapy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Music Therapy (page does not exist)">MMT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration" title="Master of Public Administration">MPA</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Public_Diplomacy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Public Diplomacy (page does not exist)">MPD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Professional_Studies" title="Master of Professional Studies">MPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Nursing" title="Master of Science in Nursing">MSN</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Professional_Studies" title="Master of Professional Studies">MProfStuds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Journalism" title="Master of Journalism">MJ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Science in Taxation">MST</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Social_Work" title="Master of Social Work">MSW</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Affairs" title="Master of Public Affairs">MPAff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Library_and_Information_Science" title="Master of Library and Information Science">MLIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Letters" title="Master of Letters">MLitt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Public Health">MPH</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Project_Management" title="Master of Science in Project Management">MPM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Policy" title="Master of Public Policy">MPP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Physical_Therapy" title="Master of Physical Therapy">MPT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Religious_Education" title="Master of Religious Education">MRE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Theology" title="Master of Theology">MTheol/ThM/MTh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Sacred_Theology" title="Master of Sacred Theology">STM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">LLM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Engineering" title="Master of Engineering">MEng</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Natural_Science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Natural Science (page does not exist)">MSci</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Biology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Biology (page does not exist)">MBio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Chemistry" title="Master of Chemistry">MChem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Physics" title="Master of Physics">MPhys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Mathematics" title="Master of Mathematics">MMath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medical_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Medical Science">MMedSc</a> or <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medical_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Medical Science">MMedSci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Music" title="Master of Music">MMus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Environmental_Science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Environmental Science (page does not exist)">MESci</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Geology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Geology (page does not exist)">MGeol</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Traditional_Chinese_Medicine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Traditional Chinese Medicine (page does not exist)">MTCM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Social_Science" title="Master of Social Science">MSSc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Civil_Law" title="Bachelor of Civil Law">BCL</a> (Oxon), <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Philosophy" title="Bachelor of Philosophy">BPhil</a> (Oxon), <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Theology" title="Master of Theology">ThM</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">Licentiate</a> degrees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Licentiate_of_Arts" title="Licentiate of Arts">Lic Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_in_Dental_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Licentiate in Dental Surgery">LDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_of_Canon_Law" title="Licentiate of Canon Law">JCL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_of_Sacred_Theology" title="Licentiate of Sacred Theology">STL</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Licentiate_of_Sacred_Scripture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Licentiate of Sacred Scripture (page does not exist)">SSL</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Licentiate_of_Sacred_Scripture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Licentiate of Sacred Scripture (page does not exist)">LSS</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Licentiate_in_Philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Licentiate in Philosophy (page does not exist)">PhL</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Specialist_degree" title="Specialist degree">Specialist degrees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Educational_Specialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational Specialist">EdS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Specialist_in_School_Psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialist in School Psychology">SSP</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degrees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">AE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Building_engineer" title="Building engineer">BE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">BME</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">CE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">CE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">ChE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">EE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">CpE</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Engineer_in_computer_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Engineer in computer science (page does not exist)">ECS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental engineer">EnvE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">MSE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">ME</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naval_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval engineering">NavE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">NuclE</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_engineer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ocean engineer (page does not exist)">Ocean E</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">SysE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineer_(degree)" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineer (degree)">Eng</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Professional_degree" title="Professional degree">First-professional degrees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Audiology" title="Doctor of Audiology">AuD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Chiropractic" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Chiropractic">DC, DCM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Dental_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Dental Surgery">DDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Dental_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Dental Medicine">DMD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">JD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">MD (US)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Physical_Therapy" title="Doctor of Physical Therapy">DPT</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Naturopathy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doctor of Naturopathy (page does not exist)">ND</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optometry" title="Optometry">OD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Osteopathy">DO (US only)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Pharmacy" title="Doctor of Pharmacy">PharmD</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Podiatry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doctor of Podiatry (page does not exist)">DP, PodD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Podiatric_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Podiatric Medicine">DPM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Divinity" title="Master of Divinity">MDiv</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Hebrew_Letters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Master of Hebrew Letters (page does not exist)">MHL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Veterinary_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Veterinary Medicine">DVM</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Professional_Diploma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Professional Diploma (page does not exist)">PD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Sacred_Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Sacred Theology">STB</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctoral degrees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Health_Science" title="Doctor of Health Science">DHSc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Professional_Studies" title="Doctor of Professional Studies">DPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Education" title="Doctor of Education">EdD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Engineering" title="Doctor of Engineering">DEng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering_Doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineering Doctorate">EngD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Professional_Doctorate_in_Engineering" title="Professional Doctorate in Engineering">PDEng</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Environmental_Science_and_Engineering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering (page does not exist)">DEnv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Business_Administration" title="Doctor of Business Administration">DBA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Divinity" title="Doctor of Divinity">DD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Canon_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Canon Law">JCD</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Sacred_Scripture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doctor of Sacred Scripture (page does not exist)">SSD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Canon_and_Civil_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Canon and Civil Law">JUD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Science" title="Doctor of Science">DSc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Letters" title="Doctor of Letters">DLitt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Arts" title="Doctor of Arts">DA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">MD (out of US and Canada)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Musical_Arts" title="Doctor of Musical Arts">DMA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Music" title="Doctor of Music">DMus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Civil_Law" title="Doctor of Civil Law">DCL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Theology" title="Doctor of Theology">ThD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">DrPH</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Physical_Therapy" title="Doctor of Physical Therapy">DPT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">DPhil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Psychology" title="Doctor of Psychology">PsyD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Social_Work" title="Doctor of Social Work">DSW</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">JD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Laws">LLD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Humane_Letters" title="Doctor of Humane Letters">LHD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Laws">JSD, SJD, JuDr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Sacred_Theology" title="Doctor of Sacred Theology">STD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Ministry" title="Doctor of Ministry">DMin</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Personal_names_and_anthroponymy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Personal_names" title="Template:Personal names"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Personal_names" title="Template talk:Personal names"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Personal_names" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Personal names"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Personal_names_and_anthroponymy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Personal_name" title="Personal name">Personal names</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthroponymy" title="Anthroponymy">anthroponymy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal name</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_name" title="Birth name">Birth name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Given_name" title="Given name">Given name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surname" title="Surname">Surname</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">Patrilineal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Matriname" title="Matriname">Matrilineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes" title="List of family name affixes">Affixes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobiliary_particle" title="Nobiliary particle">Nobiliary particle</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By sequence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_name" class="mw-redirect" title="First name">First name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_name" title="Middle name">Middle name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surname" title="Surname">Last name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By trait</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">Diminutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barrelled_name" title="Double-barrelled name">Double-barrelled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">Epithet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_epithet" title="Animal epithet">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_people_by_epithet" title="Lists of people by epithet">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_epithet" title="Plant epithet">Plant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eponym" title="Eponym">Eponymic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matronymic" title="Matronymic">Matronymic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonymy" title="Metonymy">Metonymic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mononymous_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Mononymous person">Mononymic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational name">Occupational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronymic" title="Patronymic">Patronymic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patronymic_surname" title="Patronymic surname">Surname</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobriquet" title="Sobriquet">Sobriquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teknonymy" title="Teknonymy">Teknonymic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toponymic_surname" title="Toponymic surname">Surname</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrial_name" title="Patrial name">Patrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_name" title="Unisex name">Unisex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_name" title="Virtue name">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By life situation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aptronym" title="Aptronym">Aptronym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_name" title="Birth name">Birth name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_name" title="Code name">Code name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiden_and_married_names" title="Maiden and married names">Maiden and married names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necronym" title="Necronym">Necronym</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">Posthumous name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">Temple name</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placeholder_name" title="Placeholder name">Placeholder name</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Notname" title="Notname">Notname</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_name" title="Regnal name">Regnal name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudonym" title="Pseudonym">Pseudonyms</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_pseudonyms" title="List of pseudonyms">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_name" title="Art name">Art name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bug%C5%8D" title="Bugō">Bugō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickname" title="Nickname">Nicknames</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nicknames" title="Lists of nicknames">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocorism" title="Hypocorism">Hypocorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_by_nickname" title="List of monarchs by nickname">Monarchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nom_de_guerre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nom de guerre">Nom de guerre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pen_name" title="Pen name">Pen name</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heteronym_(literature)" title="Heteronym (literature)">Heteronym</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_name" title="Ring name">Ring name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikona" title="Shikona">Shikona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_name" title="Stage name">Stage name</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stage_names" title="List of stage names">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_one-word_stage_names" title="List of one-word stage names">Mononyms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Username" class="mw-redirect" title="Username">Username</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture <a href="/wiki/Surnames_by_country" title="Surnames by country">Surnames by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amami_name" title="Amami name">Amami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_name" title="Chinese name">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Courtesy_name" title="Courtesy name">Courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_name" title="Art name">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_name" title="Generation name">Generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_titles" title="Chinese titles">Titles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_name" title="Japanese name">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_name" title="Korean name">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_name" title="Manchu name">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_name" title="Okinawan name">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_customs_of_Taiwanese_indigenous_peoples" title="Naming customs of Taiwanese indigenous peoples">Indigenous Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_name" title="Vietnamese name">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Asia and Central Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_name" title="Kalmyk name">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_name" title="Mongolian name">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakut names">Sakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_name" title="Tibetan name">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> and Western Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_name" title="Afghan name">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_name" title="Azerbaijani name">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_name" title="Bengali name">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berber_name&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Berber name (page does not exist)">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic name">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaean_name" title="Mandaean name">Mandaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_name" title="Pakistani name">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtun_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun name">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_name" title="Persian name">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_names" title="Sindhi names">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_name" title="Somali name">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_name" title="Tatar name">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_name" title="Turkish name">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Australian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fijian_name" title="Fijian name">Fijian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_name" title="Hawaiian name">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_naming_customs" title="Māori naming customs">Māori</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akan_names" title="Akan names">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_naming_customs" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo naming customs">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_conventions_in_Eritrea_and_Ethiopia" title="Naming conventions in Eritrea and Ethiopia">Eritrean and Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ewe_language#Naming_system" title="Ewe language">Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_name" title="Ghanaian name">Ghanaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_name" title="Igbo name">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_name" title="Yoruba name">Yoruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_names" title="Zimbabwean names">Zimbabwean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_name" title="Albanian name">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_name" title="Armenian name">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_surname#Ashkenazi_Jewry" title="Jewish surname">Ashkenazi Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_surnames" title="Basque surnames">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Estonian_name&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Estonian name (page does not exist)">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_name" title="Finnish name">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_name" title="Georgian name">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_name" title="Greek name">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_personal_names" title="Ancient Greek personal names">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Cypriot_name" title="Greek Cypriot name">Cypriot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_names" title="Hungarian names">Hungarian</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_name" title="Latvian name">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_name" title="Lithuanian name">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_onomastics" title="Celtic onomastics">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_surnames" title="Cornish surnames">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_name" title="Irish name">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_surnames" title="Manx surnames">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_name" title="Scottish Gaelic name">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_surnames" title="Welsh surnames">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_name" title="Germanic name">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_name" title="Dutch name">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_name" title="English name">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_name" title="Canadian name">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_name" title="Hong Kong name">Hongkongese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_name" title="German name">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_name" title="Gothic name">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_name" title="Icelandic name">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_family_name_etymology" title="Scandinavian family name etymology">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_name" title="Swedish name">Swedish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalan name">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_name" title="French name">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_name" title="Italian name">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Occitan_name&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Occitan name (page does not exist)">Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_name" title="Portuguese name">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praenomen" title="Praenomen">Praenomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomen_(Roman_name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomen (Roman name)">Nomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">Cognomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnomen" title="Agnomen">Agnomen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_name" title="Romanian name">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_naming_customs" title="Spanish naming customs">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naming_customs_of_Hispanic_America" title="Naming customs of Hispanic America">Hispanic America</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_names" title="Slavic names">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_name" title="Bulgarian name">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_name" title="Croatian name">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_name" title="Czech name">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slavic_naming_customs" title="Eastern Slavic naming customs">Eastern Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_name" title="Belarusian name">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slavic_naming_customs" title="Eastern Slavic naming customs">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_name" title="Ukrainian name">Ukrainian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kashubian_name&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kashubian name (page does not exist)">Kashubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_onomastics" title="Macedonian onomastics">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish name">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_name" title="Serbian name">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_name" title="Slovak name">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_name_suffixes" title="Slavic name suffixes">Suffixes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indosphere" title="Indosphere">Indosphere</a> (<a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_name" title="Balinese name">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_name" title="Bengali name">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese name">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_name" title="Filipino name">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_names" title="Indonesian names">Indonesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Indonesian_surname" title="Chinese Indonesian surname">Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_name" title="Javanese name">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Khmer name">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_names" title="Malaysian names">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_name" title="Indian name">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_name" title="Lao name">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_name" title="Pakistani name">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_names" title="Sindhi names">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_name" title="Sinhalese name">Sinhalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_conventions_of_ancient_Tamil_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Naming conventions of ancient Tamil country">Ancient Tamil country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_name" title="Thai name">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_name" title="Religious name">By religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_name" title="Christian name">Christian name</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_names" title="List of biblical names">Biblical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_name" title="Papal name">Papal name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint%27s_name" title="Saint's name">Saint's name</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_surname" title="Buddhist surname">Buddhist surname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_name" title="Dharma name">Dharma name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Jewish name</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_name" title="Hebrew name">Hebrew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaean_name" title="Mandaean name">Mandaean name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophoric_name" title="Theophoric name">Theophoric name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manners of address <a href="/wiki/List_of_titles" title="List of titles">List</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_of_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Title of authority">of authority</a>/<a href="/wiki/Title_of_honor" title="Title of honor">of honour</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Style_(form_of_address)" title="Style (form of address)">Styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorific" title="Honorific">Honorific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_rank" title="Diplomatic rank">Diplomatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_styles" title="Royal and noble styles">Imperial, royal, and noble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Judiciary styles">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_titles_and_styles" title="List of religious titles and styles">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_titles_and_styles" title="Ecclesiastical titles and styles">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-nominal_letters" title="Pre-nominal letters">Pre-nominal letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffix_(name)" title="Suffix (name)">Suffix</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emeritus" title="Emeritus">Emeritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-nominal_letters" title="Post-nominal letters">Post-nominal letters</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_(distinction)" title="Order (distinction)">Orders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Award" title="Award">decorations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medal" title="Medal">medals</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Title" title="Title">Titles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial,_royal_and_noble_ranks" title="Imperial, royal and noble ranks">Imperial, royal and noble</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtesy_title" title="Courtesy title">Courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_titles_of_nobility" title="False titles of nobility">False</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_title" title="Hereditary title">Hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiary_title" title="Subsidiary title">Subsidiary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_title" title="Substantive title">Substantive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_titles" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional titles">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_ranks" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic ranks">Academic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degree" title="Professional degree">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_title_(academic)" title="Honorary title (academic)">Honorary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_title" title="Corporate title">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_rank" title="Diplomatic rank">Diplomatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_titles" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial titles">Judicial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_titles_and_styles" title="List of religious titles and styles">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_titles_and_styles" title="Ecclesiastical titles and styles">Ecclesiastical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_titles" title="Papal titles">Papal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_day" title="Name day">Name day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints" title="Calendar of saints">Calendar of saints</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">Acronym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">Anonymity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">Anthropomorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personification" title="Personification">Personification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_personification" title="National personification">National</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_sign" title="Call sign">Call sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadnaming" title="Deadnaming">Deadnaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym" title="Endonym and exonym">Endonym and exonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galton%E2%80%93Watson_process" title="Galton–Watson process">Galton–Watson process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_name" title="Legal name">Legal name</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Name_change" title="Name change">Name change</a></li></ul></li> <li>List <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_popular_given_names" title="List of most popular given names">Given</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_most_common_surnames" title="Lists of most common surnames">Surname</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namesake" title="Namesake">Namesake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_taboo" title="Naming taboo">Naming taboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomen_nescio" title="Nomen nescio">Nomen nescio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misnomer" title="Misnomer">Misnomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/-onym" title="-onym">-onym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">Personal identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identifier" title="Identifier">Identifier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper name">Proper name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signature" title="Signature">Signature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monogram" title="Monogram">Monogram</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_cypher" title="Royal cypher">Royal cypher</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khelrtva" title="Khelrtva">Khelrtva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signum_manus" title="Signum manus">Signum manus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">Tughra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surnames_by_country" title="Surnames by country">Surnames by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_names" title="Category:Lists of names">Category:Lists of names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Diploma_icon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/19px-Diploma_icon.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/29px-Diploma_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Diploma_icon.png/38px-Diploma_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Education</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Academic degree at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Academic_degrees" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Academic degrees">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Academic_degree" class="extiw" title="q:Academic degree">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189533" class="extiw" title="d:Q189533">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" 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